Instruction Manual for
Braille Transcribing

Based on the 
Nemeth Uniform Braille System
(NUBS)
Developed by
Abraham Nemeth,  Ph.D.

Third Draft  
December,  2013

Prepared by
Joyce Hull

                        
               
Table  of  Contents

  Preface ………………………………………………………………………      ix		
 General Course Instructions  - Literary Aspects of Braille Transcription  …	        1	 	Purpose and Scope   …………………………………………………. 	        1
	How to Enroll	……………………………………………………..	2
	Equipment	……………………………………………….………..     	2
		Computer Program 	…………………………………..………..  	3
		Braillewriter 	………………………………………………….. 	3
		Slate and Stylus 	……………………………………..………..  	4
	Preparation of Reading Practices, Drills, and Exercises 	….……….. 	4
		Reading Practices and Drills 	………………………….……….. 	4
		Exercises 	…………………………………………………….. 	5
		Braille Page Margins and Line Length ……..………….	……….	 5
		Perkins Braillewriter …………………………………………….	5
		Centering a Heading	………………………………………….. 	6
		Page Numbering for Lessons  ………………….…….………… 	6
		Erasures  	……………………………………………………….. 	6
		Proofreading  …………………………………………………..… 	7
	Grading  ………………………………………………..………………	7
	Certification   ……………………………………………..………..… 	7
	Mailing Materials 	………………………………………..……….. 	8
		Submitting  Exercises   ………………………………………….. 	8
		Mailing the Trial Manuscript	   …………………………………..	8
	A Bit of the History of the Braille Code   …………………………….	8
Lesson 1.  The Braille Alphabet and Numbers …………………………..	11	 
	1.1 	In General 	…………………………………………………….. 	11
	1.2	Braillewriters, Computer Braille Programs, and Braille Slates …	11		     	. 	11
	1.3  The First Ten Letters of the Alphabet 	……………………….. 	12
			Drill 1	…………………………………………...……….. 	12
	1.4	The Second Ten Letters of the Alphabet 	…………………….. 	12
			Drill 2 	…………………………………………………….. 	13
	1.5	The Last Six Letters of the Alphabet 	………………..……….. 	13
			Drill 3 	…………………………………………………….. 	14
	1.6 	Digits and Numbers ……………………………….………..….. 	14
 	1.7   Definition of Word in the Braille System ………………………		14
	Reading Practice 	………………………………………………….. 	15
	Exercise 	…………………………………………………………..	….	15

Lesson  2.  Capitalization, Paragraphing, Punctuation: Period, Colon, 
                  Comma, Question Mark, Semicolon, Exclamation Point, 
		 Hyphen, Dash,  Numbers with Punctuation …………………	17
	2.1	Capital Letters,  Fully Capitalized Words and Phrases …………	17			       	….. 	17
			Drill 4	…………………………………………..……….. 	18	
	2.2	Paragraphing	………………………………………..……….. 	18
	2.3  	Punctuation:  Period,  Colon,  Comma,  Question Mark,  
			      Semicolon,  Exclamation Point  	……………..……….. 	18
			Drill 5	…………………………………………..……….. 	20
	2.4	Hyphen 	……………………………………………………….. 	20
			Drill  6	………………………………………….……….. 	22
	2.5  	Dash ………………………………………………	……………..	22
			Drill  7  	………………………………………….……….. 	25
2.6  The Punctuation Indicator in the Notational  Mode  …………….. 	25
			Drill  8   …………………………………………………….. 		27
	Reading Practice ………………………………….…….…………….	28
	Exercise	……………………………………………………..……….. 	28
Lesson  3.  Quotation Marks,  Apostrophe,  Parentheses,  Brackets,  
  	        Braces, Adjacent Punctuation,   Long Dash,  Slash  …………	31
	3.1   In General ……………………………………………………….	31
	3.2  	Quotation Marks:  Single and Double ……………..…………… 	31
	3.3  	Apostrophe	…………………………………………………….. 	31
	3.4  	Parentheses, Brackets, and Braces ………………………………	33
			Drill  9  	………………………………………….………….	34
	3.5  	Omitted Phrases, Words and Letters …………………………….	34
	3.6  	Long  Dash  ………………………………………………………	34
	3.7 	Slash	………………………………………………..…………..	35
			Drill  10 	…………………………………………………….	36
	Reading Practice  ……………………………………………………..	37
	Exercise  …….……………………………………………..…………..	38

Lesson  4.  One-Cell Whole-Word Contractions.
		 Whole-Word Contractions for:   and,  for,  of,  the,  with …..		39
	4.1  Contractions in General	…………………………………………	39
	4.2  One-Cell Whole-Word Contractions (Alphabetic Contractions)		39
			Drill 11 	…………………………………………………….	40
			Drill 12 	…………………………………………………….       	42
	4.3  Whole-Word Contractions for:  and,  for,  of,  the,  with	 
			       and Sequencing   ……………………………………...…   	43
         			Drill 13 ………………………………………………………	 	45
	4.4  Part-Word Contractions for:  and,  for,  of,  the,  with …….…….	45
	4.5  Rules  for All Part-Word Contractions	…………………………	46
			Drill 14	…………………………………………………….	47
	Reading Practice	……………………………………………………...	48
	Exercise	…………………………………………………………….	49	

Lesson  5.  Whole-Word Contractions for:   child,  shall,  this, 
			       which,  out,  still
 		   Part-Word Contractions for:   ch,  sh,  th,  wh,  ou  ,st 
		   Ordinal Numbers, Plural or Possessive Numbers   ………..	51
	5.1  In General	………………………………………….…………...	51	
	5.2  Whole-Word Contractions for: child, shall, this, which, out, still 		51			       …………………………………………..	53	
			Drill  15	……………………………………………………..	52	
	5.3  Part-Word Contractions for:  ch,  sh,  th,  wh,  ou,  st 	………….	52
	5.4  With Slashes	………………………………………..…………..	54	
	5.5  Ordinal Numbers: Plural or Possessive Numbers ……………….	54	
			Drill  16	……………………………………………………..	55 	
	Reading Practice  …….………………………………………………..	56
	Exercise	  …….………………………………………………………..	57

Lesson  6.  Part-Word Contractions for:  ar,  ed,  er,  gh,  ow,  ble,  ing  	59
	6.1  In General	……………………………………………………...	59
			Drill 17	……………………………………………………...	63
	6.2  Ing or ble at Beginning of a Word  ……………………………...		64
	6.3  Retaining the Usual Braille Form of a Base Word	 ……………..	64
	6.4  Part-Word Contractions Standing Alone 	…………..…………..	64
	6.5  Choice Between Alternative Contractions	………….…………..	65
			Drill 18	 ……………………………………….…………..	66
	Reading Practice   …..………………………………………………..	.	67
	Exercise    …….………………………………………….…………..	.	68

Lesson  7.  Whole-Word Lower-Sign Contractions for:  in,  enough
			        be,  his,  was,  were
		  Part-Word Lower-Sign Contractions for:  in,  en,  be,  con, 
			        dis,  com
		  Introduction to Short-Form Words  …...…...…...…...…...…...	71
	7.1  Definition of Lower-Sign Contractions  ….…………………..…	         71
	7.2  Whole-Word Lower-Sign Contractions for:   in,  enough,  		
		          be,  his,  was,  were …………………..……………………….	       	71	
			Drill  19	……………………………………………………	73
	7.3  Part-Word Lower Signs	…………………………………………	73
	7.4  The Lower-Sign Rule	…………………………………………..	74
			Drill  20	……………………………………………………	76
	7.5  Part-Word Lower-Sign Contractions for:  be,  con,  dis	………	77
	7.6  Contraction for  com	……………………………………………	78
			Drill  21	……………………………………………………	79
	7.7  Preserving the Usual Form of the Base Word	………………….	79
	7.8  In Proper Names	………………………………………………..	80
	7.9  Be,  con,  dis  and  com in Abbreviations 	……………………	80	
	7.10  Introduction to Short-Form Words	…………………………….	80
			Drill 22	…………………………………………………….	81
	Reading Practice	……………………………………………………	82
	Exercise 	………………………………………………………………      	83
Lesson  8. Whole-Word Lower-Sign Contractions for:  to,   into,  by	 	
	       Part-Word Lower-Sign Contractions for:   bb,  cc,  dd, 
                        ff,  gg,  ea
		More Short-Form Words …...…...…...…...…...…...…...…......	85
	8.1  Contractions for:   to,  into,  by  …………………………………..	85
			Drill 23	…………………………………………………….	88	 
	8.2	The Double-Letter Signs and the  ea  sign ………………………	89	
	8.3	More Short-Form Words	……………………………………….	92
			Drill 24	……………………………………………………	93
	Reading Practice	…………………………………………………….	95
	Exercise	……………………………………………………………..	96
Lesson  9.  Initial-Letter Contractions, More Short-Form Words …….		99
	9.1  In General	………………………………………………………	99	
	9.2	Exceptions to the General Rule	……………………………….	101	 
			Drill  25	…………………………………………………..	102
	9.3	Preference for One-Cell Contractions	………………………….	103
	9.4  Digraphs	……………………………………………………….	103
	9.5	Choosing Between Consecutive Contractions	…………………	103
	9.6	Proper Names	………………………………………………….	104
	9.7	More Short-Form Words	………………………………………	104
			Drill 26	……………………………………………………	104
	Reading Practice	…………………………………………………….	106
	Exercise		……………………………………………………………..	107	
Lesson  10. Final-Letter Contractions, More Short-Form Words …...…	111
	10.1	 Final-Letter Contractions	………………………………………	111
	10.2  More Short-Form Words	……………………………………..	114
			Drill 27	……………………………………………………	115
	Reading Practice	…………………………………………………….	117
	Exercise		……………………………………………………………..	118
Lesson  11.  Short-Form Words,  Proper Names  …...…...…...…...…...…	121
	11.1  In General ……………………………………………………….	121
	11.2  As Whole Words ………………………………………………..	122
	11.3  As Part Words …………………………………………………… 	122
	11.4  In Compound Words …………………………………………….	124
	11.5  Special Rule for after, blind, and friend as Part Words …………	124
	11.6  In Unusual Words ………………………………………………	124
	11.7  Short-Form Words in Proper Names  ……………………………	125
			Drill  28 ………………………………………………………..	126
	Reading Practice  ………………………………………………………	128
	Exercise ………………………………………………………………..    	129
Lesson 12.  Mode Issues,  Treatment of Single Letters or Letter 
		  Groupings,  Distinguishing Names and Other Words from
		  Short-Form Words,   Hybrid Words,  Speech Mannerisms	
                   and Anomalies,  Syllabicated Words or Words Under Study,               		 Transcriber's Notes …………………………………………….	133	
 	12.1  Mode Issues  	…………………………………………………….	133
	12.2  Treatment of Single Letters or Letter Groupings ……………….	133
			Drill  29 ………………………………………………………	137
	12.3  Distinguishing Names and Other Words from Short-Form 
		      Words  ……………………………………………………….	137
	12.4  Hybrid Words  …………………………………………………..	138
			Drill  30  ……………………………………………………… 	141
	12.5	  Speech Mannerisms and Anomalies  …………………………... 	141
	12.6  Syllabicated Words or Words Under Study  ……………………	143
	12.7  Transcriber's  Notes ……………………………………………..	144
			Drill  31 ………………………………………………………..	146
	Exercise  ………………………………………………………………	147

Lesson  13.  Commonly-Occurring Symbols,  Abbreviations, Acronyms, 
	          Units of Measure,  Personal Initials,  Telephone Numbers,  
                   Postal Codes,  Dates,  Format for Correspondence …………	151
	13.1  Commonly Occurring Symbols ……………….………………..	151
			Drill  32 ……………………………………………………….	155
	13.2  Abbreviations,  Acronyms,  Units of Measure ………………….	155
	13.3  Personal Initials …………………………………………………	160
	13.4  Telephone Numbers …………………………………………….	160
	13.5  Postal Codes …………………………………………………….	161
	13.6  Dates  ……………………………………………………………	161
			Drill  33  ………………………………………………………	162
	13.7  Format for Correspondence ………..……………………………	163
	Exercise ……………………………………………………………….	164

Lesson 14.  Roman Numerals,  Decimals,  Mathematics:  Signs of  
                    Operation, Signs of Comparison, Equations, Simple Fractions 
                    and Mixed Numbers,  Simple Superscripts and Subscripts, Radicals,  Currency,  Clock Time,  Sports Scores 	and Votes,  Computer Text,  Very Long Numbers ………………………..	167	
	14.1  Roman Numerals  ………………………………………………	167
			Drill 34  ……………………………………………………….	169
	14.2  Decimals ……….………………………………………………..	169
	14.3  Simple Mathematics  .…………………………………………..	169
	14.4  Currency ………………………..………………………………	177
	14.5  Clock Time  ……………………….……………………………	177
	14.6  Sports Scores and Votes ……….……………………………….	177
	14.7  Electronic Addresses and Other Computer Texts …………....	…	178
	14.8   Very Long Numbers ……………………………………………     178
			 Drill 35 ……………………………………………………..	.. 	179
	Exercise ………………………………………………………………  	180

Lesson 15  Special Font Indicators,  Termination Symbols, 
		  Ellipsis, Quoted Material,  Enclosed Portions of Words,
		  Order of Punctuation Marks and Indicators,
		  Punctuation Marks Standing Alone or Enclosed ……………	183
	15.1  The Special Font Indicators ……………………………………	.	183
	15.2  Summary:  Use of Special Font Indicators ……………………..	189
			Drill  36 ………………………………………………………..	190
	15.3  The Ellipsis ……………………………………………………..	191
	15.4  Print Signs of Omission …………………………………………	192
	15.5  Quoted or Displayed Material …………………………………..	193
	15.6  Order of Punctuation Marks, Symbols and Indicators …….	……. 	193
	15.7  Portions of Words and Numbers in a Different Font ……………	194
	15.8  Slash with Special Fonts ………………………… …………….	195
	15.9  Freestanding Portions of Words ………………………………..	195
	15.10  Enclosed Portions of Words …………………………………..	196
	15.11  Punctuation Marks or Symbols Standing Alone or Enclosed  ..	196
	15.12  Simbraille Indicator …………………………………………..		196
			Drill 37  .…...………………………………………………… 	197
	Exercise ………………………………………………………………	198

Lesson  16    Anglicized Text,  Words or Phrases,  Words with Accented 
		     Letters,  Foreign Words or Phrases,  Foreign Names,
		    Foreign Punctuation, Corrupted and Coined Words,  
		    Special Terminology,  Non-Latin Alphabets ………………	201
	16.1  Anglicized Text  (Words or Phrases)  Defined ……………….. 	201
	16.2  Foreign Words or Phrases ………………………………………	204
	16.3  Foreign Names in English Text ………………………………… 	207
	16.4  English Names in Foreign Text ………………………………… 	207
	16.5  Single Foreign Letters or Letter Combinations …………………	207
	16.6  Foreign Punctuation Marks ……………………………………..	208
			Drill  38  ………………………………………………………	209
	16.7  Corrupted Words,  Coined Words,  Specialized Terminology .…	210
	16.8	  Non-Latin Alphabets  …………………………………………..	211
	16.9  Old and Middle English,  Archaic Spelling  …………………….	212
			Drill  39  ………………………………………………………..	212
	Exercise ………………………………………………………………..	213
Lesson 17  Headings,  Reference Symbols,  Notes,  
		  Source References,  Credit Lines,  Pagination ………………     215
	17.1  Headings ……………………………………………………….. 	215
	17.2	  Reference Citations in Print ……………………………………	217
	17.3  Reference Symbols ……………………………………………..	217
	17.4  Placement of the Footnote or Referenced Text …………………	218
	17.5  Source References ………………………………………………	219
	17.6  Credit Lines  (Attributions )..………………………………...	…..	219
	17.7  Pagination ……………………………………………………….	221
	Exercise ……………………………………………………………….	222
Lesson 18   Special Formats:  Poetry,  Columns,  Tables,  Outlines,  
		  Suggested Formats:  Menus, Recipes ………………………..	227	  	
	18.1  In General ……………………………………………………….	227
	18.2  Poetry  …………………………………………………………..	227
	18.3  Columns ………………………………………………………..	.	230
	18.4  Tables …………………………………………………………..	232
	18.5  Outlines  ………………………………………………………...	234
	18.6  Menus …………………………………………………………..	235
	18.7  Recipes  …………………………………………………………	236
	Exercise ……………………………………………………………… 	237
Lesson 19  Braille Format  (Preparation for Trial Manuscript) ………..	245
	19.1  Format in General ……………………………………………… 	245
	19.2  Pagination  ………………………………………………………	246
	19.3  Transcriber-Generated Pages  ……………………………………	248
	19.4  Preliminary Pages ………………………………………………..	257
	19.5  Pagination of Pages in Braille Documents ………………………	262
	19.6  Summary: Order of Transcriber, Preliminary and Text Pages …	263
	19.7  Book Broken into Units  ………………………………………..	263
	19.8  Chapter Titles  …………..……………………………………...	264
	19.9  Volume Size and Division ..……………………………………..	265
	19.10  Appendixes, Glossaries, Bibliographies, Indexes, Etc. ………..	266
	19.11  End-of-Volume and End-of-Book Indication ………………….	266
	Exercise ……………………………………………………………….. 	267
Lesson 20  The Trial Manuscript and Certification ………………………	283
	20.1  In General ………………………………………………………..	283
	20.2  Choosing a Book for the Manuscript  ……………………………	284
	20.3  Formatting the Book  …………………………………………….	284
	20.4  Beginning Pages …………………………………………………	284
	20.5  Accuracy and Neatness ………………………………………….	285
	20.6  Erasures …………………………………………………………	285
	20.7  Editing……………………………………………………………	286
	20.8  Proofreading …………………………………………………….	286
	20.9  A Letter to the Grader …………………………………………..	286
	20.10  Mailing the Manuscript …………………………………….	…..	286
	20.11  Grading  ……………………………………………………….	287
	20.12  Appealing the Test Results  ……………………………………	287
	20.13  Certification ……………………………………………………	288

Appendices.
	Appendix  A  –	Reading Practices
	Appendix  B  –  	Drills in Simulated Braille
	Appendix  C  –  	Understanding Modes
	Appendix  D  – 	Typical and Problem Words 
	Appendix  E  –  	Contraction Summaries
    	Appendix  F  –  	Anglicized Words and Phrases
   	Appendix  G  –  	Greek Alphabet,  Specific Accent Signs, 
		         Native Foreign Language Accents
 	Appendix  H  –  	Symbols and Signs
	Appendix   I   –  Alphabetic Index of Braille Signs

Preface

This document, in rough draft form, has been designed to provide a means of introducing current braille transcribers and new transcription students to this new braille system – The Nemeth Uniform Braille System  (NUBS).  This manual does not have any official status at this time.  But, if and when NUBS is adopted, it is my hope and the hope of Dr. Abraham Nemeth, author of NUBS, that it can serve as a baseline for an official manual. 

To take advantage of the many years of thought and creative efforts of those who developed the transcription manuals now in use,  I chose to use the Fifth Edition of the Instruction Manual for Braille Transcribing, created under the guidance of Constance Risjord.  She had lots of help from other transcribers and from braille readers, including  Mary Lou Stark,  Jennifer Dunnam, and John Wilkinson. Until I began working on this manual, I had NO idea of the difficulty of creating sentences and examples to use in the early lessons, where there is a tremendous restriction in avoiding the use of braille contractions that have not yet been introduced! That is really tough!  So, of course, I took advantage of the words and sentences that appear in the Drills, the Reading Practices and the Exercises that had been used in the Fifth Edition.  I had to change only those examples that did not fit with the NUBS requirements or did not demonstrate some of the unique features of NUBS.

I am indeed indebted to those who have contributed to the many editions of the braille instruction manuals over the years.  This includes the authors, editors, proofreaders and evaluators.  We owe them our profound gratitude.

It would be extremely helpful if those using this manual would offer any suggestions, criticisms, or comments  that would improve the final product.

Joyce Hull  

General Course Instruction
Literary Aspects of Braille Transcription
Purpose and Scope

As this manual is being written, NUBS has no official status in the United States, although it has wide support across the country.  Organizations that are referred to in this document:  BANA  (Braille Authority of North America),  NLS (National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped),  and related documents such as EBAE, (English Braille American Edition) may be replaced or renamed  by the time NUBS becomes an official braille code in this country. At that time,  the references to these governing structures and procedures must be adjusted to reflect the  prevailing organizations and rules.  In general, this document is written as if NUBS has been officially adopted.

This manual is designed for use in the braille transcription course conducted by the Library of Congress, National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (NLS), and for use by instructors of braille classes. The course is based on the Nemeth Uniform Braille System (NUBS), which is designed to replace the three current codes – the literary code ( EBAE),  the Nemeth Code,    and the Computer Braille Code.  It is offered to serve as the official braille system for the United States.  This course is intended to familiarize the student with this new braille system, with braille contractions and their usage, and with the rules of braille transcription.  

Great care has been taken to ensure that none of the sentences in the drills and Exercises in this manual contain words that require the use of contractions not yet studied. While greatly restricting the choice of words and types of sentences in the earlier lessons, this practice helps prevent the student from acquiring the habit of brailling words incorrectly.

Throughout this manual, examples are presented in simulated braille (braille characters reproduced in print). The student is directed to study them carefully. They show how the rules work in practice and also highlight peculiar situations where a rule is not applicable. 
 
When this manual is finalized, Appendices at the back will contain materials useful as references throughout the course. The Appendixes are listed at the end of the Table of Contents. 

 Most of the problems that are likely to be found in the transcription of general    literature are presented and discussed in this manual, and upon the successful completion of the course, the student should be competent to deal with these problems. However, no attempt is made here to train the student in the transcription of specialized materials.  

This manual addresses only the literary aspects of NUBS, plus some of the most basic elements of mathematics. Upon the completion of this course and the submission of a passing-grade manuscript to the National Federation of The Blind, the student becomes certified as a literary transcriber.  

A separate course,  dealing with the scientific aspects of transcription,  must be completed in order to become certified in scientific transcription.  A manual is being written for that course.   
As the language grows and changes, so too must the rules that govern the production of braille. BANA meets regularly to review the rules and make periodic changes. When rule changes are approved, they will be incorporated into this instruction manual by means of replacement pages. Students taking the course by correspondence will automatically receive up-to-date material. Teachers of braille transcription classes should request copies of replacement pages for their students.
  The National Federation of the Blind currently administers the braille certification courses under contract with the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped. All persons using this manual are invited to submit related comments, criticisms, or suggestions to the Braille Certification Training Program, National Federation of the Blind, 200 East Wells at Jernigan Place,  Baltimore, MD 21230. These will be studied carefully and given serious consideration in the preparation of any revision.
How to Enroll
Please visit http://www.nfb.org/transcribers or call (410) 659-9314 (ext. 2510) to obtain an information packet explaining the braille transcription course and an application form.
Equipment
The following equipment and supplies will be required for use by the student:
•	The latest edition of Instruction Manual for Literary Braille Transcription provided free of charge to U.S. citizens and residents enrolled in the course and the 	latest edition of English Braille American Edition, — the NUBS  Edition !!
•	A collegiate edition of any reputable dictionary less than ten years old.       On-line dictionaries such as www.dictionary.com are also permissible.
•	Braille transcription paper measuring 11 x 11 ½  inches. A good source for braille paper is the American Printing House for the Blind, 1839 Frankfort Avenue, P.O. Box 6085, Louisville, KY 40206. If paper is ordered locally,      specify 90-lb. card stock with the grain running along the 11-inch      dimension. (Note that braille paper is not necessary if lessons are to be submitted electronically. See Lesson 20 for more details on these requirements.) 
•	A braille eraser, available from the American Printing House or from Howe Press, 175 North Beacon Street, Watertown, MA 02472. (An eraser is not  necessary if lessons are submitted electronically).
•	A braillewriter, a 40-cell braille slate and stylus, or a computer using a direct-input braille program. Direct-input programs require the user to braille using only six keys, much in the same manner as when using a braillewriter. Scanners or translation programs, where the user types in the material on a standard keyboard and the type is then translated into braille, are not allowed for use in this course. Exercises must be submitted in hard copy (embossed) braille, or by e-mail with the electronic file as an attachment. Simulated braille (dots reproduced in print on paper) will not be accepted.

Computer Program 
A computer program can be used for the lessons in this manual provided the computer programs allow for the six-key entry. If the program provides any automatic features such as running heads or page numbering, these must be disabled.  All spacing, centering, and line breaks must be performed manually. The most popular programs that offer six-key input and other conveniences for learning braille are Braille2000 available from  braille2000.com  and Duxbury,  available from  duxburysystems.com. 

Braillewriter 
While there are a number of braillewriters on the market, the Perkins brailler      has been found to be an eminently satisfactory machine. Purchase information,  and instructions for its operation, are available from the distributor: Howe Press, 175 N. Beacon Street, Watertown, MA 02472.

Slate and Stylus 
If a braille slate and stylus are to be used, we recommend the 40-cell board slate that is available from Howe Press. This braille slate consists of two pieces, a hinged metal guide and a flat wooden board. The bottom portion of the metal guide has four rows of indented braille cells. The top portion has four rows of cutouts that fit exactly over the indented cells and serve as a template for the stylus. Two pegs on the underside of the guide fit into regularly spaced holes at the left and right sides of the wooden board.
Insert the guide into the set of holes nearest the top of the board, with the hinged side at your left. Before inserting the paper, open the metal guide as you would a
book. At the top of the board there is a metal clasp with two prongs on the lower
piece. Place the paper well up over the prongs, with its left edge against the hinge of the guide and the 11½-inch dimension of the paper running from left to right. To make sure that the paper is inserted straight, keep the bottom of the paper exactly parallel to the lower edge of the board. Snap the clasp shut and close the metal guide over the paper. The prongs of the clasp hold the paper in place, and the holes made by the prongs make it possible to replace the paper in exactly the same position when necessary.
The point of the stylus is used to press the paper into the indented cells, thus forming the desired dots. In doing so, hold the stylus in a vertical position, rather than at a slant, in order to ensure a clear, firm dot. Four lines of braille can be written with the guide in the first position. When these lines have been written, move the guide down into the next set of holes without removing the paper. Continue in this manner until the entire page has been completed.
Preparation of Reading Practices,  Drills, and Exercises
 Reading Practices and Drills 
Material in this manual is divided into twenty lessons. The first eleven lessons each have a Reading Practice,  and Lessons 1–16 each contains one or more Drills. These are designed solely to give the student practice in applying the rules covered in the preceding section. Students enrolled in the Library of Congress correspondence course should not submit these drills to the instructor. 
The Reading Practices should be written out in longhand before comparing them to the print versions found in Appendix A in this manual.  All of the Drills are printed in simulated braille and appear in Appendix  B. In order to derive maximum benefit from them, it is imperative that the student first braille each Drill and then compare the results with the corresponding Drill in the Appendix B.  It would be helpful as you progress in this course to ask your instructor to provide some pages of embossed braille so that you can experience the tactile use of braille.
Exercises  
The Exercise at the end of each lesson is designed to test the student's ability to deal with problems presented in that lesson and also to serve as a review of previous lessons. These Exercises must be submitted to the instructor for examination and correction. Students enrolled in the correspondence course must submit  each  Exercise to the instructor on braille paper or in an electronic file via e-mail. Exercises submitted on Thermoform paper or in simulated braille printed  on paper will not be accepted.  Only one Exercise at a time should be submitted. Those students who are taking instruction elsewhere need submit only the trial manuscript, as described in Lesson 20, to the National Federation of the Blind for certification by the Library of Congress.
 Some of the lessons can be divided into two parts. Where this is possible, a note has been added indicating the proper breaking point. The Exercise has then been arranged so that the first half of the Exercise contains only items that have been studied in the first part of the lesson.
Braille Page Margins and Line Length 
 The Library of Congress requires that books produced under its sponsorship be transcribed on pages  measuring 111/2 inches wide and 11 inches long. This also applies to students of the transcription course when submitting Exercises and/or the trial manuscript. Volumes with insufficient margins at the left side present serious binding problems; therefore, the Library of Congress requires a left-hand margin of at least one inch. The right-hand, top, and bottom margins should measure at least one-half inch. These measurements allow for a page of twenty-five lines with 40 cells per line.
Perkins Braillewriter  
In order to ensure proper margins and a clear copy of the entire braille page by Thermoform duplication, the margins on a Perkins braillewriter, which has a 42-cell per line capability, should be set so that it is not possible to braille in the first cell at the left margin or in the last cell of the line.
All references to cell numbers (for example: Start in cell 1 …) refer to the margin in effect. Therefore, when using a 40-cell line, cell 1 will be the second cell on the machine. A good way to set the margins in the brailler is to insert a piece of paper into the machine; push the margin release tabs (located at the rear of the machine) open as far as possible, and, by pushing all six keys at the same time, braille a line of full cells. There should be 42 cells. This practice allows the cells to be seen or felt and the margin tabs to be set in the appropriate places.
Centering a Heading 
With the exception of the Exercise in Lesson 1, the first line of every page of an Exercise should carry a fully capitalized centered heading, called a “running head.” To center a heading, first count the number of cells that the heading will occupy. Subtract that number from 40 (the number of cells on a line). Divide your answer in half and that will tell you how many blank cells should precede and follow the heading. When a heading occupies an uneven number of cells so that it cannot be perfectly centered, move the heading off center by one cell to  the left, so that the  extra blank cell is to the right of the heading. When counting the number of cells needed for a centered heading, remember to include in your count all contractions, spaces, punctuation signs, and indicators. Also, remember that contractions take fewer cells than the letters they replace.
A blank line should follow the centered running head only on the first page of each Exercise. All other pages should have the running head on the first line and the Exercise continuing on the second line.

Page Numbering for Lessons
 Beginning with the Exercise in Lesson 2, consecutive braille page numbers, preceded by three blank cells, should be shown at the right margin on the last line (line 25) of each page.  In Lesson 19,  we will learn how print page numbers should be treated.

Erasures 
 Erasures should be resorted to only rarely, and then they should be made with the greatest care. In order to execute a neat erasure, place the paper on a smooth, hard surface such as a piece of glass or a mirror. Place the tip of the eraser on the dot to be erased and gently but firmly press straight down. Then move the eraser in a circular motion until the dot has been completely leveled. Do not  scrub the paper. Be certain that no adjacent dots have been lowered and, if so, reinforce them with the point of the stylus or with the braillewriter.
 Since even good erasures are often detectable and confusing to the braille reader, an erasure should not be made if it would result in a blank cell. Do not erase more than one dot in a cell. Do not erase at the end of a line or in a page number. If the grader can feel an erasure, it will be counted as an error.  

Proofreading 
 Careful proofreading is the key to becoming a successful transcriber. At first, a sighted student may encounter some difficulty in reading the braille that he or she produces. This situation can be helped by reading what has been brailled, letter-by-letter, and writing it out in longhand. This procedure will not be necessary for long. Soon the eyes will start recognizing clusters of dots as individual characters.
 
 As an Exercise is being transcribed, proofread each sentence on the computer screen or while the paper is still in the machine. The Exercise should be proofread again when it is complete. And finally, after letting the material rest for several    days, the entire Exercise should be proofread again. The pages with errors should be redone so that the Exercise, when presented to the instructor, is as perfect as the student can make it.
Grading
After the instructor has examined each Exercise, the student will receive a detailed report pointing out errors and making helpful comments and suggestions. Grading is up to the instructor's discretion. Depending upon the number and type of errors made, the student will be asked to resubmit sentences in which errors occurred, or the entire Exercise may have to be repeated. When the instructor is satisfied that the student has mastered the material, a new assignment is made. In general, with the practice provided by the drills and the assistance of the instructor's reports, it should be possible for students to submit an acceptable Exercise on the first or second attempt.
Certification
Certification as a braille transcriber is awarded for two different areas of braille texts – literary braille and scientific braille.  The student must achieve certification in literary braille before enrolling in the course for scientific transcription. The rules you learn as a literary transcriber will apply in your scientific study.  These are two parts of a single braille system – not two different braille codes.
This manual addresses only the literary aspects of certification.  After finishing the lessons in this manual, certification as a literary braille transcriber is achieved by receiving a passing grade on a thirty-five braille-page manuscript. Details for preparing the manuscript, and information about the grading process, are located in Lesson 20. For the student who wishes to expand his knowledge into the area of transcribing scientific texts,  there is another Instruction Manual for that purpose.  

Mailing Materials
Submitting Exercises
All Exercises brailled on paper should be mailed to: National Federation of the Blind, Braille Certification Training Program, 200 East Wells at Jernigan Place, Baltimore, MD 21230. The braille pages should never be folded or rolled. Enclose them in a padded envelope or in a large envelope with firm cardboard sheets the size of braille paper on the top and bottom to protect the braille. Electronic submissions should be e-mailed as an attachment to transcribers@nfb.org.

Mailing the Trial Manuscript 
The trial manuscript must be submitted on paper. In preparing the trial manuscript for mailing, be sure that the pages are assembled in proper order with the embossed side facing up. Then bind them securely together. A print copy of all of the front matter from the book chosen for the manuscript, a copy of all of the print pages that were transcribed, the letter to the grader (as described in Lesson 20), and the braille manuscript should be placed in a box or adequately wrapped to protect them from damage. Photocopies of the print are acceptable.

A Bit of the History of the Braille Code

The braille code, as used in the United States, has been developing and changing for over 150 years. Louis Braille's original code was not officially adopted until after his death in 1852. That code would be viewed today as a very incomplete system.  Over the years,  many rules have been changed and many contractions have been defined.  In contracted braille, formerly called Grade-2 braille, contractions are used where one or two braille cells can represent longer words.  For example, the word every is now represented by the letter e when it stands alone. The words  for,  and,  from,  just,  quite,  tomorrow, according,  and many others, can be represented by one or two braille characters.  Today, there are about 187 contractions in the braille code.  These and other changes have improved the readability and compactness of braille texts.

In the last half of the twentieth century,  many braille students who were exposed to the scientific disciplines found that the braille system available to them at that time was inadequate to handle the math and science texts they needed in order to pursue their interest and talents in the scientific world.  Some of this situation can be attributed to the time,  not so terribly long ago,  when little was expected of blind people.  Almost no one envisioned them as capable of advanced thinking and creativeness in any area of advanced learning, especially in the scientific disciplines. Then along came a brilliant and determined young blind man who had a natural talent for math and science and wanted to pursue advanced studies in this area.  His name is Abraham Nemeth.  He was informed by his academic advisors that blind people were not expected to pursue such studies and that he should explore other, more traditional,  avenues of study.  In spite of this advice,  he studied all of the math he could get his hands on and, in the process, developed a “personal” braille code that allowed him to represent the math and science expressions with which he had to deal.  Other blind students heard about this and wanted to be able to use this new braille system. Thus, after many years, the Nemeth Code for Mathematics and Science Notation was born. This became the approved code for expressing scientific text in braille, and eventually became a part of the academic curriculum for children as early as the third grade.  Blind students still had to deal with at least two very different braille codes in the normal pursuit of an education.  

Abraham Nemeth, who by this time had earned a Ph.D. degree, has been concerned with the complexity of the braille system as defined for the past thirty or more years. Dr. Nemeth and others have been trying to define a  uniform system that would serve multiple disciplines.  He has developed a very comprehensive new braille system that incorporates many aspects of braille texts: literature, poetry, mathematics, life sciences, computer programming,  etc.
      
In October of 2009,  Dr. Nemeth presented the documentation for this new braille system,  now called the Nemeth Uniform Braille System or NUBS,  to the Braille Authority of North America  (BANA)  which has jurisdiction over the formal acceptance of any proposed changes to the braille system used in North America.  BANA performed a evaluation of NUBS, using focus groups of braille readers and transcribers, and conducting an evaluation using a "Sampler" to see how easy it would be for experienced braille readers to read material written in NUBS and for transcribers to be able to create new texts in NUBS. The Sampler contained many text elements that occur in everyday reading and in early academic situations.  These included a newspaper article, a menu, a bus schedule, some simple math problems and a recipe.  NUBS is  under consideration for becoming an approved braille system for the United States.

This manual, which provides the instructional materials for you to become a certified braille transcriber,  is the first manual to present NUBS to a new group of candidates for braille transcription.  In this regard,  your patience would be appreciated as this new system becomes established. There may be unforeseen difficulties and omissions that will need to be addressed.  So please bear with us as you embark on this exciting journey into the world of braille transcription.

Since you will be learning some features and rules that differ from that of previous transcription students, you may hear someone say —  “That is not how I learned it.”  or  “You are not treating capital letters correctly.” or  “We learned that numbers are written using the letters  a, b, c,  etc.”  Just explain that you are learning a new and different braille system, just begun in 2014, and that some of the rules have changed.  

The braille system that you are learning  (NUBS) is designed to handle all of the various texts that a blind person might need—literary, scientific, computer programming,  etc.  The main discipline that is not covered in NUBS is music which has a braille language all its own.

One of the elements of NUBS that may take some time to digest is that of the two modes that the system uses.  These are the narrative mode for literary material, and the notational mode for mathematical and other scientific materials.  Computer applications use the notational mode also.  You will learn when to use each mode.  In order to help you with this mode awareness issue, special paragraphs labeled  “MODE ALERT!” are provided as topics that have a bearing on mode understanding are introduced.

If you find elements in this manual that are not as clear as they should be, or if you find obvious errors,  please report them to  

Joyce Hull
407-349-5059
jhull@fbs.net

Lesson  1
The Braille Alphabet and Numbers
	1.1	In General
Braille is a system for tactile reading and writing. It uses characters formed by combinations of six embossed dots that are arranged within the braille cell in two vertical columns of three dots each. A simple braille character is formed by one or more of these dots, and it occupies a full cell or space.

For convenience, the dots of the braille cell are referred to by number and correspond to the keys on a braillewriter.
Braille Cell	            Braillewriter

1   •  •    4			  UUU [===] UUU
2   •  •    5                                 3    2   1                 	    4   5   6
3   •  •    6

1.2    Braillewriters,  Computer Braille Programs,  and Braille Slates 
There are three methods of braille transcription—braillewriter, computer using a special braille program, and slate-and-stylus. The braillewriter and the computer work in much the same way in that they use six keys corresponding to the braille cell as shown above. 

When a braille slate is used, the embossing is done from the underside of the paper. Therefore, the writing is done from right to left, so that when the page is turned over it can be read from left to right. For this reason dots 1, 2, and 3 are brailled at the right-hand side of the braille cell on the slate; dots 4, 5, and 6 at the left-hand side, as shown in the alphabetical index of braille signs in Appendix I.

Most computer programs designed to create braille texts can handle six-key input that emulates a Perkins braillewriter.  The keys for the six dots are:

                                     s   d   f   g  h  j  k  l
                                     3    2    1             4    5  6

There are also computer programs that translate print into braille. Only persons thoroughly trained in reading and writing braille should use these programs. 

1.3 The First Ten Letters of the Alphabet 
The first ten letters of the alphabet are formed by using the upper and middle dots of the cell, and they are the foundation of the braille system. 

Memorize the following letters by their dot numbers and configurations. 

	a        	 b        	c        	d        	e        	f        	g       	h        	i  	 j   

	a   b  	c 	d	e  	f  	g  	h 	i   j   

Drill 1 

Thoroughly familiarize yourself with the first ten letters of the alphabet by brailling the following words. Reading across, start each line in the first cell. Leave one blank cell (space) between words. Your work on this and all subsequent drills should not be submitted to the instructor for correction. Instead, check the accuracy of your work by comparing it with the correct braille form in Appendix B

	acid 	  acacia 	badge       	beige 	  babe 	cage         	cicada        	deface      dice 	ebb 	egg 	  fad 	fief 	gag 	
	gage         hag           hajji          	hide 	  hie 	id 	if 	
	idea 		 jag 		jade 

1.4  The Second Ten Letters of the Alphabet 

The second ten letters of the alphabet are formed by adding dot 3 to each of the first ten. Thus, k is formed by adding dot 3 to a, l by adding dot 3 to b, etc. 

	 a	b    	c       	d        	e        	f        	g       	h        	i           j   

	a   b  	c 	d	e  	f  	g  	h 	i   j 
  
 	 k	 l    	m      	n        	o        	p       	q       	r       	s           t   

      k      l 	m 	n 	o   p  	q   r   s   t

                                                       Drill  2

Practice the letters learned by brailling the words in the following drill. 

	kick      kneel     lair     llama     manor	 melon 	  mammal     noise      notice 
     orange      orphan      popcorn      pope      possessor     qoph      rapport     rascal 
     sassafras     tattletale      tragic       trio       tort       ticket       tide
  
1.5   The Last Six Letters of the Alphabet 
The letters u, v, x, y, and z are formed by adding dots 3 and 6 to the first five letters. Thus, u is formed by adding dots 3 and 6 to a, and so on. The letter w, (dots 2456), does not fit into this pattern because Louis Braille devised the braille system in France in the mid-19th century, and the French alphabet did not then contain the letter w. 

	 a 	 b    	 c       	 d        	 e    	 f        	g       	h        	 i           j   

	a   b  	c 	d	e  	f  	g  	h 	i   j 
 
 	k	l           m      	n        	o            p       	q       	r            s           t   

    k   l   m    n   o   p    q   r     s    t  
 
	 u	v    	w       	x        	y        	z        	

	u   v  	w 	x	y  	z  	
  
1.5.1  Dot-Number Format   
      When it is desirable or necessary to identify, in print, the dot positions used in a braille character or group of characters, the format will be as follows:   
                   w   w    (2456)      me   me   (134,15)

     Note that it is implied that any number  (or numbers, separated by a comma but no space) in parentheses, represent the dot positions of the braille characters that precede it.

Drill 3

When you have learned the final six letters of the alphabet, braille the following words for practice. 
	ooze            maze           quiz        ukulele        ultimatum       vacillate 	 
          vaguely       wigwag	  wield       weird          xylem              xebec
	yolk            yew 	  zebra       zombie 	      zoological       zygoma 	  	  
1.6  Digits and Numbers    
Digits in braille are as follows,
         1          2            3            4           5            6            7            8            9           0
     #1  #2  #3  #4  #5  #6  #7  #8  #9  #0
which you will recognize as the braille representation for the first ten letters in the alphabet, dropped to the lower part of the cell and preceded by the numeric indicator (dots 3456). Two- or three-digit numbers need only one numeric indicator.
          10              14                 87                103               965              1776
       #10   #14    #87    #103   #965   #1776
For practice, braille all of the numbers listed above.  Did you get them all right?

1.7   Definition of Word  in the Braille System  
In learning braille transcription, you will need to learn a broader definition of the term “word”.  A word, in normal braille usage, may not always coincide with a dictionary definition.  In braille, a word is a group of letters and/or numbers that is bounded by delimiters, usually spaces.  Each of the following   is a single word in braille.
              Examples:
	       airplane      son-in-law      800-564-1212      1256AMC
You will learn more about delimiters in later lessons.
An exception to this definition of word will be discussed later, when we learn about certain words that can be connected to each other, called sequencing. These exceptions are described in Sections 4.3 and 8.1.1.  
 MODE ALERT!  Mode is a word-by-word attribute.  Every word that you have seen so far has been either narrative or notational.  Numbers (page numbers, dates, or dot numbers) are notational. All the other words you have seen so far are narrative. When a word has a numeric indicator #  (3456) as its first symbol: a)  the next character is a digit, and b) the mode is notational.  With some exceptions,  when a space or a dash occurs the word and its mode end.  If the next word is narrative, no indicator is required.  If the next word is notational, and:
	a) it begins with a digit,  then a numeric indicator is required as 	its first 		    braille character, or
	b) it begins with a non-digit, then a notational indicator  ;  (56) is required 	  	    as its first braille character.
As we proceed, you will learn some rules that apply when you are in the notational mode.  Appendix C gives an in-depth explanation of the concept      of modes.
Reading Practice
Read the following phrases and write them out in longhand. Do not submit this work to your instructor. Check your work with the print version in Appendix A. 

MOVIE RERUN    	#100 BEES BUZZ
SAFE BET     	TWELVE DOLLS
ANTS MAKE ANTHILLS    #6 GIRLS JUMP ROPE
BLUE UMBRELLA 	#8 KETTLEDRUMS BOOM
NO VACANCY      	ALL ALIKE
WALNUT PANCAKES 	CUTE QUADRUPLETS
AGREEABLY NICE 	FLEA BITE
#2 YULE LOGS     	#64 OBSOLETE AUTOS
ZIGZAG ROAD   	IDIOTIC IDEA
SPICY SALAMI    	BEETLES SCURRY
CLUB BYLAWS     	ADD TWO PLUS TWO
TORN CUFF      	AERIAL VIEW
FREE GIVEAWAY   	WISE OLD MAN
#35 CRAZY COYOTES	#79 LIVELY LADIES

EXERCISE 

Prepare the following Exercise and submit it to the instructor for correction. Read down the columns. Starting on line 1, begin each entry in the first cell of a new braille line. Do not skip lines; you should have 25 entries on each page. If you are using a braillewriter, be sure that you position every page correctly by pushing down on the line-space key (farthest key to the left) one time before you start to braille. Add your name in braille at the end of the Exercise or as your teacher directs. (Correspondence students: For the convenience of our braille-reading instructors and non-braille-reading clerical staff, if you are submitting your lessons on paper or as an electronic file, add your name in braille and print at the end of each Exercise.) 
MODE ALERT!   In each of the entries in this Exercise that includes a number,  only the number is in the notational mode; other words in the phrase are in the narrative mode. 

             jazz tunes 
he prays daily 
feigns surprise 
a frisky poodle 
fidgety filly 
59 raw recruits 
quixotic exploits 
electric elevator 
queue up 
64 zany zebras 
build a wigwam 
9 gigantic gorillas 
attractive tie 
lovely lullaby 
wry wit 
jubilant hallelujahs 
gooseneck lamp 
olives or onions 
vivid pictures 
icicles drip 
dull adjectives 
bridle a pony 
wise philosophy
126 wet pets
six textbooks
lovely velvet
yuletide joy 		
 pretty anemone 
true blue 
blood circulates 
mutual respect 	
80 hot dogs 
a brook murmurs 
weird spectacle 
xiphoid process 
quizzes puzzle me 
3 labor battalions 
unbelievably calm 
home sweet home 
fireflies flit 
brass knuckles 
mimic a madman 
angry gangs 
12 pretty rosebuds
prompt appraisal 
bacon smells salty
10 nocturnal birds
extra axe
big felt yurt
78 brass bassoons

Lesson  2 

Capitalization, Paragraphing, Punctuation:  Period,  Colon,  
Comma,  Question Mark,  Semicolon,  Exclamation Point,  
Hyphen,   Dash,  Numbers with Punctuation

2.1   Capital Letters,  Fully-Capitalized Words and Phrases
In braille, there is no separate alphabet of capital (upper-case) letters. So special indicators are needed in braille to indicate this change of letter case.
2.1.1  Capital Letters
     For individual letters, capitalization is indicated by placing the capital-letter indicator (dot 6) immediately before the letter affected.
           Example:
             New York         ,New ,York	
2.1.2  Capitalized Words  
      When all of the letters in a word or letter grouping are capitals, the capitalized-word indicator ,,  (6,6)  must be placed in two consecutive cells immediately before the capitalized word
              Examples:
                   NEW YORK   ,,New ,,York     YMCA  ,,YMCA
2.1.3  Capitalized Phrases   
     A phrase is a group of three or more consecutive words.  Phrases may contain hyphens,  but no dashes (see Section 2.5).  When all of the words in a phrase are fully capitalized, the capitalized-phrase indicator ,,;  (6,6,56)  must       be placed in three consecutive cells immediately before the first capitalized word. At the end of the fully-capitalized phrase the capitalization terminator (end-caps indicator)  ,' (6, 3)   is required.  
             Example:
 	    CALL  ME  MADAM!      ,,;call me madam6,'
    Note that the end-caps indicator appears after any closing punctuation.
In proper names where some letters are in lower case, a capital-letter indicator is placed before each capitalized letter. If part of the name is fully capitalized,   a capitalized-word indicator is placed before the fully-capitalized portion. 
     Examples:
 DeLeon           ,de,leon	    
 MacDONALD      ,mac,,Donald 
All indicators, including the numeric indicator and capital indicators, have special attributes which we will learn about later.
Drill 4
Practice brailling the following to familiarize yourself with the use of the capitalization indicators. Reading down the columns, place each entry across the page with three blank cells between entries.
Anita	OKLAHOMA	Faye
MY FAIR LADY	McWilliams	DUNE BOY
Adriatic	Claude	Leon
RADIO GUIDE	MOBY DICK	MacDANIEL
2.2  Paragraphing   
In general reading material, paragraphs are indicated in braille by starting the first word of each new paragraph in the third space, or cell, of a new line. All following lines start at the left margin. This rule applies even if the print text uses a block format (no paragraph indentations) with blank lines between the paragraphs. In braille, never leave a blank line between paragraphs unless the print indicates a break in thought or scene by means of extra spacing. (This situation is discussed further in Lesson 19.)

Occasionally, for visual appeal, print uses one enlarged or ornate letter or all capital letters in the first few words at the beginning of a chapter or other division. In braille, this practice is ignored. Such paragraphs should be properly indented and normal capitalization used.

2.3  Punctuation:  Period,  Colon,  Comma, 
       Question Mark,  Semicolon,  Exclamation Point  
The use, order, and spacing of braille punctuation should follow print practice except in specific instances to be covered later in this manual. As in print, only one space is left empty following commas and semicolons. However, unlike print that often leaves two blank spaces following a colon and between sentences, only one empty cell is left in braille.  

MODE ALERT! The period, the colon, and the comma each have two different representations, one for the narrative mode and one for the notational mode. The exclamation point, the question mark and the semicolon are the same in the two modes.  As we progress, you will understand the need for these rules. Again, if helpful, refer to Appendix C. Also, Appendix I contains a list of all the braille contractions, short-form words, punctuation signs, special indicators and symbols.  This should be a useful reference.

Learn the following punctuation signs:

period    .    narrative          4	(256)
                   notational         ]  	(12456)
colon     :    narrative          3      (25) 
                      notational        :      (156)
comma   ,    narrative          1      (2)
                   notational         *      (16)	
question mark        ?           8       (236)
semicolon               ;           2   (23)
exclamation point   !           6   (235)

Examples:   
    I want six apples.      ,I want six apples4
             (all narrative)
    He gave Sam 6, Jim only 4.               
             ,he gave ,sam #6* ,jim only #4]
          (Notice the notational comma and period.)

MODE ALERT!   Let us look at a few examples  to begin to understand why we need two forms for certain punctuation marks. Notice what happens if the narrative period is used to write 192.   #1924  A  person reading it would see  #1924,  since the narrative period looks like a digit 4 when attached to a number.  Also,  if  the narrative comma were used in 19,000 we would see #191000 since the narrative comma has the same representation as the digit #1.  The colon would be confused with the digit 3.  As we progress, you will become keenly aware of the need for the two modes!

Drill 5

Practice brailling the following sentences. In this and all future drills and Exercises that are in a list format, begin each entry in cell 1,  with runovers in cell 3.  This is the standard format for lists, as defined in the 2011 Version of Braille Formats, (BrailleFormats2011). 

Identifier numbers in a printed list are usually arranged so that the periods are in alignment. This is not so in braille. In braille, the numeric indicator is placed in cell 1, followed immediately by the number—regardless of the number of digits in the identifier.  Remember to use a notational period if there is a period in print following the identifier.

1.    I want six items: saw, nails, nuts, bolts, screws, tacks. 
2.    Flynn, take a memo: Call Mr. Phelps at 12:00 noon; see Mr.  			Gray at 2:30 pm.
3.    Is Mr. Dale a college graduate?
4.    Ralph is sick; hail a cab!
5.    Score a victory!  He got 10,000 votes!
6.    Take my book; hold my coat! Hang up my umbrella!
7.    Turn on a radio or TV at once; an unusual report is on.  
8.    Quiet, Aunt Em, I am afraid! An angry man knocks at my door.
9.    My favorite play is MY FAIR LADY.
10.  Does Jimmy want my old bicycle?
11.   Help! Help! I hurt my leg!
12.   Next exit:  Peoria,  Galesburg,  Decatur.  
2.4  Hyphen 
The hyphen is represented in braille by dots 36. As in print, the principal uses of the hyphen are to divide words at the end of a line and to connect the components of compound words or numbers.

2.4.1  Dividing Words Between Lines  
     Students of this course, at this stage of the learning process, are expected to divide words between lines whether working on a braillewriter, computer, or slate and stylus. However, experience has shown that very little is saved in line or page count by extensive use of hyphenation.  It is recommended that    you learn to divide words between braille lines using the following guidelines:
1)  Compound hyphenated words may be divided after any hyphen. 
2)  Other compound words, such as backyard or campground, may	
     hyphenated between their major components. 
3)  Words with long prefixes or suffixes, may be divided after the  
     prefix or before the suffix.  
        Examples:    self-            horse-         ultra-           
                               reliant          back            violet         
Word-division between braille lines is optional, but must be limited to the three options listed above.  Do not hyphenate if less than three cells of the word, plus the hyphen, are on the first braille line.  Thus, the word express would not be divided between braille lines.  
Words may NEVER be divided between braille pages.
2.4.2  Dividing Compound Words Between Lines  
   	Do not leave a space either before or after a hyphen in a compound word, regardless of print spacing. Whenever a hyphen appears at the end of a print line it becomes necessary for the transcriber to determine (1) whether it has been used to divide a word between syllables, in which case the hyphen is omitted in braille, or (2) whether it separates the components of a hyphenated compound word, in which case the hyphen is retained in braille. In either case, such words may be divided at the end of a braille line in accordance with rules 2.4.1 and 2.4.2.1.
    Example:  where the print shows the word divided and the braille can fit the word on one line.
      Print                    Braille
          electro-                electromagnetic
              magnetic 
2.4.2.1  Dividing Hyphenated Compound Words Between Lines 
	You will find many hyphenated compound words that are not in the dictionary. This is because when two words that modify a noun are placed before it, the words are often joined by a hyphen, as in the well-dressed man. However, if the two modifiers follow the noun, they are not hyphenated, as in  The man was well dressed.
When a hyphen appears at the end of a print line and the compound word cannot be found either in the dictionary or somewhere else in the text it should be treated as a hyphenated compound word, and the hyphen should be retained.
2.4.2.2 Capitalized Hyphenated Compound Words
     Hyphenated compound words and abbreviations are capitalized in braille as they appear in print. A double capital indicator placed before a hyphenated compound word indicates that all the letters of the compound word are capitals. Therefore, the double capital indicator is not repeated after the hyphen. 
                                                     Drill 6
Practice brailling the following sentences.  Remember to use the list format described before Drill 5.
1.	Deborah has on an extremely pretty blue-gray dress.
2.	I want an up-to-date plan.
3.	Sell my five-acre plot? No way!
4.	Maple-vanilla is my favorite flavor.
5.	TWO-ON-AN-ISLE TALES is a picturesque book.
6.	Philip took a six-week trip abroad.
7.	Judge Biswell is a self-made man.
8.	A semi-annual picnic is a swell idea.
9.	A new sign extols: CUT-RATE-SALES.
2.5    Dash  
     A dash is represented in braille by  .- (46,36).  Note that this is a two-cell sign. You will learn other two, three, and even four-cell signs in future lessons. A dash can usually be distinguished from a hyphen in print by its greater length. However, since print uses dashes of varying lengths, it isn't always easy to differentiate between the two symbols, and it is sometimes necessary to determine from context which braille symbol to use. This can be done by keeping in mind that the two marks have different functions.
A hyphen is used to join together compound words or expressions. It is also used to separate the syllables of a word.  For example, in the sentence, 
“At-ten-tion!” shouted the six-foot soldier!  hyphens separate the syllables of the command and also join the elements of the compound word.
A dash is used to separate segments of a sentence, and sometimes to begin or end an incomplete sentence. Dashes perform all of these duties in the following example.  “I don't see what you see in”—she frowned—glanced at the door— and continued,  “—him at all!”    

2.5.1  Spacing with a Dash
     Print is often inconsistent in the spacing before and after a dash. In earlier braille codes,  the placement of spaces before and/or after a dash was based on the context.  Is it a mid-sentence dash?  Does it follow an incomplete sentence?  Does it come before a new sentence?  Where does it fall on the braille line? In NUBS, none of this matters.  The rule is FOLLOW PRINT. This makes it less ambiguous for print imports.
    Example:
              He is tall  —  six feet anyway. 
   ,He is tall .- six feet anyway4
   	           My girl is sweet. My boy  ─  
         he is my joy.
,My girl is sweet4 ,My boy .- he is      my joy4
        Oh, my—  Jessica wept.
  ,Oh1 my	.- ,Jessica wept4
       He gave a big yawn.  —too sleepy!
  ,He gave a big yawn4 .-too sleepy6
       Hooray!  We won.  —  Oh, boy!  —  I am truly happy.
     ,Hooray6 ,We won4 .- ,Oh, boy6 .-	
   ,I am truly happy4

2.5.2  The Dash is an Unconditional Delimiter
	In many of the examples above, the dash is surrounded by spaces, which serve as delimiters.  However, if the dash is NOT followed by a space,  the dash serves as a delimiter (unconditionally).
          Example:
          Boys play at Mike's TIP−TOP Club.
 	    ,boys play at ,Mike's ,,tip.-,,top ,club4 
Notice that the capitalization is terminated by the dash (a delimiter) and the capitalized-word indicator must be repeated.
2.5.3  Dashes and Capitalized Phrases  
     Since “phrases” cannot contain dashes (see Section 2.5), the following text consists of: two words, a dash and a phrase,  and should be brailled as shown.
            EYES ONLY — TOP SECRET  REPORT 
                 ,,eyES ,,ONLY .- ,,;TOP SECRET
    report,'
2.5.4  Division Between Lines 
     When a dash is preceded and followed by a word, it can either end or begin a braille line—but a braille dash can never be divided between lines. 
Example:
         We all play baseball—or football.
	                  ,We all play baseball.-
   or football4
          [or]   
                  ,We all play baseball
   .-Or football4
2.5.5  Adjacent Punctuation  
When a dash that begins or ends an incomplete sentence is preceded or followed by a quotation mark or some other mark of punctuation, no space is left between the dash and the punctuation. 
    Example:
	       Has Dan got a key  —Oh, no!—   He has Tim's.   — wait, wait!
	  ,Has ,Dan got a key .-,oh1 no6.- 
	  ,He has ,Tim's4 .-wait1 wait6  
When an author's name or other attribution follows an excerpt or quotation and is separated from it by a dash, in braille no space is left before or after the dash.  
    Example:
   	  True patriots repudiate tyrannical dictators.  —  Janet Wise
     ,True patriots repudiate tyrannical
   dictators4.-,janet ,Wise
Drill 7
      Practice brailling the following sentences, using the list format.
1.	 Travis is a happy man—or is he?
2.	 I may take a walk or—  No, I lack an umbrella.
3.	 Liam walks two miles—or a mile if he feels lazy.
4.	 Miss Breckette,  give Susan my notes—notes I made a week ago.
5.	 Lectures on sculpture, poetry, classical music  —  hip-hop is taboo  —give visitors broad cultural opportunities.
2.6  The Punctuation Indicator in the Notational Mode
	The symbols for punctuation, in both the narrative and the notational mode can be misinterpreted in some contexts unless provision is made   to avoid this problem.  This section presents some of these issues as   they apply to the notational mode. Section 3.4 addresses these issues     as they apply to parentheses in both the narrative and the notational mode. 
 2.6.1  The Effect of the Numeric Indicator 
     The notational mode established by the numeric indicator (See Section 1.6) persists in spite of intervening commas, colons, or hyphens.  (Or slashes, fraction lines, or decimal points which will be studied later). 
           Examples:
            1,000,000                                8:30                      1850-57
     #1*000*000    #8:30    #1850-57
MODE ALERT!  Notice that, since these words are notational,  the notational comma and colon are used.  The hyphen is the same in both modes.  These do not present problems here because the narrative mode has its own symbols for comma and colon (and for a period when we need one).
However, we need to be alert to the case where a semicolon, an exclamation point or a question mark occurs in the notational mode!  If you check on page 19 you will see that these punctuation marks, in braille, look like the digits 2, 6, and 8 respectively. So we need to use a special symbol, called the punctuation indicator  _ (456)  immediately before these punctuation marks to clarify the meaning of the symbols, but this does not terminate the word or its mode.  
    Example:
           Is my score 80 or 82?    ,is my score #80 or #82_8 
A notational word and its mode are terminated by a space or dash. Therefore,  if any of these occur between numbers, the numeric indicator must be repeated. 
    Examples:
          Look at pages  90,  92  plus  96.  
               ,look at pages #90* #92 plus #96]
          999—2,000        #999.-#2*000
       An exception to the space as a delimiter is when a space is used to partition a number into short segments to improve readability, or to preserve the format of a telephone number or a social security number. These segments are not considered to be separate numbers and the numeric indicator is not used for each segment. Only one initial numeric indicator,  before the first segment, is required, and the entire segmented number must be on one braille line.
             Example:     1 800 666 4444      #1 800 666 4444
 2.6.2  Additional Considerations of  Numbers and Punctuation
	Inclusive and connected numbers, often used to report scores or voting results are discussed in Section 14.6.
	Proper treatment of very long numbers is discussed in Section 14.8.

Drill 8 
Practice brailling the following sentences, using the itemized list format. 
1.	See catalog item No. 638.
2.	Biology class: 9-11 promptly.
3.	Mayor reviews a fifty-auto cavalcade at new race track.
4.	Does 143 plus 7 equal 150?
5.	We took a major trip – 3500 miles all told.
6.	Tell Tracy: 66 rods equals 1,089 feet.
7.	Look at page 59 — page 60, too.
8.	Hooray! Cubs won 13-8.
9.	Dial 1 800 468 4581.
10.	Copy all dates on a new page: 1560-65, 1875-81, 1878?-1904.
11.	Sunrays promote human life  —  maybe 93,000,000 miles away.
12.	   Play piano sonata No. 16;  twice!
13.	   My project requires a look at 1910-14 demographic records. 

Reading Practice
Read the following sentences and write them out in longhand. Compare your work with the print version in Appendix A.

,FANS COOL A BIG ROOM RAPIDLY4
,TAKE ,,AIRPORT ,,ROAD SIX MILES2 TURN
  LEFT ON ,,MYRTLE ,,AVE4
,A KILOGRAM EQUALS #1*000 GRAMS4
,MELISSA TURNS FIVE NEXT WEEK2 ,HANNAH
  TURNS SIX4
,AN ANTONYM IS AN OPPOSITE4
,EAT A SNACK AT #10:30]
,HEY6 ,LOOK AT ,LISA RUN4
,A NAUTICAL MILE IS #6*076 FEET4
,WE DROVE #595 MILES4
,IS ,,MAGIC ,,MUSIC ON ,BAY ,VIEW 
  ,ROAD8
,A BLACK LACE DRESS MAKES ,JILL LOOK 
  SVELTE4
,I MAY VISIT MY UNCLE ON MY WAY HOME4
,VICKI1 GIVE ME A NICE JUICY APPLE PIE4
,LAURIE SAW A FIVE-ACT PLAY4

EXERCISE

Prepare the following Exercise for submission to the instructor. Use the itemized list format described for Drill 5 on Page 20.
On the first line of each page, center the heading LESSON 2 in full capital letters.  A blank line should follow the heading on the first page only.  On line 25,  place the NUBS braille page number (notational and without a period) at the extreme right-hand margin, allowing the required 3-cell spacing preceding the page number.  Do not include the word “page”. 
Words should be divided at the end of a line using only the very limited conditions for word division between braille lines as discussed in 2.4.1.  

LESSON  2

1.   Frank, a husky man, takes a horseback ride once or twice a week.
2.   Atlanta, pop. 500,900; Tampa, pop. 356,972; Detroit, pop. 2,306,500.
3.   Tony saw big-volume 2006-07 auto sales.
4.   Did Uncle David buy a five-room or a six-room villa?
5.   A small snack—fruit, biscuits, jelly, tea—is welcome.
6.   Did Nick get on a No. 40 or a No. 42 bus?
7.   Mr. Fitzpatrick collects textbooks; he has 200 on meteorology, 200 on Greek  philosophy,  50 on music,  39 on sociology,  26 on botany,  43 on  
     physiology.
8.   Mirage: an optical image.
9.   2007-08 academic progress at Fox Valley College surpasses all prior records.
10.  Pick me up at 10:00 — 10:00 promptly!
11.  Sign says: WELL-MADE  WOOL COATS.
 12.  A GLOBE-DEMOCRAT full-page ad describes a model home at 8008 	    	  Sunset Drive.
13.  On May 25, 1,436 cadets graduate.
14.  At 6:50 a bell tolls sadly.
15.  Happy Valley,  Montana,  is a classy resort.
16.  On July 1 - 3,  Gettysburg has a mock battle. 
17.  Call Morris at 608 237 6531.
18.  Craig Adams, physician, 1942-2005.
19.  Rebels total approximately 3,500,000.
20.  Look at NEWSWEEK,  April 17 issue.
21.  Total casualties equal 4,653,000. 

Lesson 3

Quotation Marks, Apostrophe, Parentheses, Brackets, Braces,
Adjacent Punctuation, Long Dash, Slash 

3.1   In General
Here are some additional punctuation marks:
apostrophe                                 	'    	(3)
left double quotation mark       	,8  	(6,236)
right double quotation mark     	,0   	(6,356)
unoriented double quotation mark	,7 	(6,2356) 
left single quotation mark         	@1  	(4,2)
right single quotation mark       	,1     	(6,2)
unoriented single quotation mark	 '   	(3)
left parenthesis                         	 (        	(12356)
right parenthesis                        	)        	(23456)
left brace	.(	(46,12356)
right brace	.)	(46,23456)
left bracket                               	@(  	(4,12356)
right bracket                             	@)       	(4,23456) 

3.2  Quotation Marks:  Single and Double  
Quotation marks, single and double, should be brailled as they appear in print. Sometimes double and single quotation marks are reversed throughout an entire print work (such as when single quotes are used as the outer quotation marks and the double quotes used as the inner quotation marks).  In braille,  maintain the form used in print. 

3.3  Apostrophe 
Follow print for the use of apostrophes. Example:  Sam's favorite is rock 'n' roll.
  ,sam's favorite is rock 'n' roll4

3.3.1 Apostrophe with Capital Letters  
     Place a capital indicator immediately before the letter to which it applies. Therefore, if an apostrophe comes before a capital letter in print, the apostrophe is brailled before the capital indicator.
    Example:    
        “ 'Twas a brilliant plan,” says Dan O'Reilly.
   ,8',Twas a brilliant plan1,0 says ,Dan
 ,O',Reilly4
Do not repeat the capital indicator following an apostrophe in a fully- capitalized word.  
     Example:  
          O'NEIL'S PUB    ,,O'NEIL'S ,,PUB
Fully capitalized words ending in an apostrophe and a lower case letter or letters. e.g., OK'd,  will be studied in Lesson 15.

3.3.2 Apostrophe with Numbers 
      When a number is preceded by an apostrophe, the apostrophe represents a missing number, so in braille the notational indicator is used before the apostrophe.
	     Example:   He has an old  '59 truck.
	       ,he has an old ;'59 truck4
	
  	Note that, since the word  ’59  in the above example does not begin with a digit, a notational indicator is used, not a numeric indicator to establish the notational mode.   Then,  of course no numeric indicator is needed before the  5,  since the word has already been declared notational.

MODE ALERT!  The example above is our first encounter with a notational word that does not start with a digit.  Another example would be  
             Item (3)   ,item ;(3) 
	where the notational indicator is required to assert that this word, which does not start with a digit, is still notational.  In declaring the word notational, the first character is not interpreted as the contraction for  of  (which you will learn about in Lesson 4),  but as a part of a notational word.  We will find many examples that require the use of the notational indicator for things like radicals, fractions, and equations that start with a letter, such as  x = 2y, etc.
3.4  Parentheses,  Brackets and Braces  
When a left or right parenthesis is in contact with a narrative word,   the punctuation indicator  _  (456) must precede the parenthesis to avoid being interpreted as the contractions for of and with,  to be learned later.
When a left parenthesis begins a notational word, the notational indictor, ; (56) must precede the parenthesis. If a left or right parenthesis occurs within a notational word,  but is not its first character, no indicator is required.  Since no contractions are permitted in a notational word, there can be no misinterpretation of these characters as  of  or  with. 
    Examples:    (63)    ;(63)  52(b)    #52(b)
       For brackets, braces or other grouping symbols, no indicators are required, since the braille characters for these symbols cannot be mistaken for other text.		 	          
Follow print for the placement and spacing of parentheses,  brackets and braces.
     Examples:
         He hit me (sob).      ,He hit me _(sob_)4
   Give me a new copy (2008 or any late issue).  
            ,give me a new copy ;(2008 or any
      late issue_)4
   I want an old  (late 1948)  model.
           ,I want an old _(late #1948) model4  
   [See page 10.]   @(,See page #10]@)  
When numbers occur within parentheses, follow print. When a missing number is represented in print by a space, the space is retained in braille and  is a delimiter.  
   Example:
      Susan Naidu  (1966-  ).     ,Susan ,Naidu ;(1966- ;)]
Since the space after the hyphen is a delimiter and is followed immediately by a right parenthesis, we need to insert a mode indicator before the right parenthesis. The mode for this right parenthesis should match the mode before the space, in this case, notational.  Any punctuation that follows that right parenthesis should reflect that mode.

Drill  9
Practice brailling the following sentences. Use the 1, 3 format for itemized lists described for Drill 5 on Page 20.  Braille the quotation marks and other punctuation in the same order as they appear in print.
1.	 “I love my new home;  twelve nice big rooms!”  he exclaims.
2.	 Jimmie (a husky boy, age twelve) ate a huge banana pie.
3.	 A girl wrote on a slate: “I love all animals, wild or tame.”
4.	 'Tis true, I love rock 'n' roll.
5.	 “If Adam sees ‘Hamlet’,  I hope he'll take adequate notes,” wrote Aunt 	 	 Lucy.
6.	 All budget items [see Joe's report on fiscal policies] presuppose a rigid 	    
 	     economy.
7.	‘Damon irritates me,’ Raymond wrote Roseanne; ‘he calls me 	 	 	“ignorant”!’
8.	 A '78 truck is old.      
3.5   Omitted Phrases,  Words,  and Letters 
Often, in print, omitted phrases and words are represented by a long dash.  A series of missing letters is represented in print by a long dash,  or as a series of unspaced hyphens or dots.  
3.6  Long Dash  
When in print an extended line is used to indicate that something has been omitted, such as a word, partial word, name, number, or a blank to be filled in,  ..-  (46,46,36)  is used. This is referred to as a long dash and it is used only when something is omitted. When the long dash represents a whole word it is spaced and punctuated as a word. 
    Examples:
          Two plus six equals  ——— .
   ,Two plus six equals ..-4
         Is Ms. ——  a private detective?
   ,Is ,Ms4 ..- a private detective8
When the long dash represents missing letters within a word, no space is left before or after it and the other letters of the word. 
Words that contain dashes, hyphens or dots to represent missing letters, are notational.
     Example:
           Mr. G——t is a spy!    ,Mr4 ;,G..-t is a spy6
When in print hyphens rather than an extended line are used to represent missing letters, an equal number of unspaced hyphens are used in braille. 
      Example:
            Mr. G-----t is a spy!
    ,Mr4 ;,G-----t is a spy6
If the print used dots (periods) for the missing letters, then notational periods would be used in braille.  
      Example:
            Mr. G.....t is a spy!
    ,Mr4 ;,G]]]]]t is a spy6
[Other print signs of omission will be studied in Lesson 15.] 

3.7  Slash  
The diagonal slash is also known as a virgule or solidus. When such a mark is used between print abbreviations, words, or numbers, this sign is represented in braille by dots 456, 34  (_/). This symbol should be spaced 
as in print and, for younger readers, it should be listed on the special symbols page (to be studied in Lesson 19).
      Examples:         s/he     s_/he	  Mr/s     ,mr_/s	
3.7.1  Indicators with the Slash  
     A slash does not terminate the effect of certain indicators. When a slash occurs between two capitalized or italicized words or abbreviations that are in the same mode, no indicators are required after the slash.
		 Example:
     MR./MRS.    ,,MR4_/MRS4

3.7.2   Numbers with the Slash  
     A notational word is not terminated by a slash.  When a slash occurs between numbers, the numeric indicator is not repeated after the slash. This is a case where the slash is NOT a delimiter.  (Fractions, which have different rules, will be studied in Lesson 14.) 
            Examples: 
            9/11      #9_/11         Model 8/408    ,model #8_/408	 

Drill 10
Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	Sudan has a dry climate;   —— is wet.
2.	Dad's new/old philosophy is a puzzle.
3.	“He is a d--n fool!”
4.	Pick correct reply: man/woman, urban/rural.
5.	M——'s record is poor.
6.	Mr.  ——  uses an alias.

Reading Practice
Practice your braille reading skills by reading the following sentences and writing them out in longhand. Notice that this is brailled in standard paragraph format.  Compare your work with the print version in Appendix  A.
,KIM LOVES COLORS3 ROSE1 COBALT _(BLUE_)1 PUCE _(DEEP PURPLE_)1 ORANGE4   
,8',TWAS A FAIR TRADE6,0 ,SAM RETORTS4
,IF ,I ASK1 RESPOND YES_/NO4
,HIPPOCRATES.-,GREEK PHYSICIAN4
,MY BOSS SAYS ,JOHN ;,S..- HAS A BAD   RECORD4
,HANNAH HAS A SIX-WEEK-OLD ,SIAMESE CAT4
,8,BUZZ,0 IS ONOMATOPOETIC4
,,;EXPRESS AISLE ONLY.-,,;PAY AT 
DESK,'
,SODIUM NITRATE MAKES ROCKET PROPELLANT2 EXPLOSIVES1 TOO4
,JOANNA ,O',REILLY HAS A CUTE BABY 
BOY4
,TELL ME6 ,HAS ,LORI ..- A SECRET 
LOVE8
,PUT ON A HAPPY_/SAD FACE4
,JANE SAYS ,DAVID IS A ..-4
,PAUSE AT ,MIKE'S ,PLACE .- ,GAS1 ,FOOD.-,EXIT #172
,TWELVE ;(12) LOTS SOLD2 ONLY SIX ;(6)   LEFT4
,ROB'S DOG1 ,ALI-,BABA1 IS A SIX-WEEK- OLD PUPPY4
,DRAGONFLIES DAZZLE VISITORS AT ,NEW ,YORK'S ,NATURAL ,MUSEUM _(EXHIBIT ,JULY #19-27)]
                                              EXERCISE
Prepare the following sentences for submission to the instructor.
LESSON  3
1.	John asks: “Did I make Mom mad at me, Dad? I didn't want to.”
2.	Joe (a grumpy man) seldom smiles; Joe's wife (luckily) seems happy.
3.	“I'm late—buses simply crawl on slick, icy roads,”  apologizes Paul.
4.	“Oh, don't play silly games,”  he snaps, “let's look at a video.”  
5.	Is Egypt an equatorial region?  [See African map.] 
6.	Let's take a swim at—  Oh, no, I left my swimsuit at home.
7.   “Practice Poe’s poem ‘Annabel Lee,’ ” Dr. Johnson told Tom's dramatics class.
8.	 My nephew, Bruce, wrote a second novel two weeks ago. 
9.   “   'Tis true, Juanita,”  spoke Joseph sadly, “we move next week.”
10.  We meet at Mr. ——’s twice a week. We plot espionage.
11.   Antonyms (opposites):  busy/calm,  hot/cold,  big/small.
12.   Dalai Lama (1936- ), Tibet's hope, visits Canada.
13.   If Major Morris is correct—I hope he is—Bill flies home next autumn.
14.   He has a sixty-six-page book at home.
15.   Tom B------ 	is a d--n idiot if he doesn't take John's old job.
16.   Semi-circles make half-moons.
17.    ‘ “Give me a home run or give me a triple”  is my motto,’ says Spillville's  
         cocky second baseman.
       18.   Franz is a born musician—plays well on a piano, an electric organ  
                (pipe organ too),  a cello,  trumpet  or  drums.
19.   We saw OILY O'NEILL'S ESCAPADES at a local movie.
20.    — oh, I'm sorry!
21.  (Dudley left home prematurely.  He wrote: my aunt's ideosyncrasies [sic]  
          drove me nuts!)
22.   “We'll visit Alaska next July;  Memphis is too hot,”  agrees Danielle.
23.   18,000,079  plus  6,956  plus  13,721  equals —— .
24.   Look at my '38 antique Buick. 

Lesson 4

One-Cell Whole-Word Contractions
Whole-Word Contractions  for:   and,  for,  of,  the,  with  

4.1 Contractions in General

To save space and facilitate reading, certain groups of letters appearing frequently in the English language are represented in braille by special characters known as contractions. Contractions may utilize one or two cells, and they may represent whole words, parts of words, or both.

Contractions that have the same or similar rules governing them are grouped together and given a name, as in the following section that discusses one-cell whole-word contractions. It is important that the names of these groupings be remembered because they will be referred to throughout the course.  

4.2  One-Cell Whole-Word Contractions  (Alphabet Contractions) 

Certain frequently-occurring words in the English language are represented by one-cell alphabetic whole-word contractions.  The first of these to be discussed are the one-cell whole-word  signs that are represented by a single letter of the alphabet. These are sometime known as the “alphabet contractions”.  The following is a complete list of these contractions which should be memorized.  
	b      but    	h     have       	 p     people        	v    very
  c     can     	j     just	 q     quite       	w    will
  d     do              	k     knowledge        r     rather            	x     it
  e     every         	1     like     	 s     so           	y     you
  f     from           	m    more    	 t     that               	z     as
  g     go             	 n     not                	 u     us
Note that,  except for it and as,  all these words are represented by their initial letters.  Because the letters a, i, and o are also single-letter words in themselves, they cannot be used as contractions for other words. Also,        the word  “do”,  when it represents a note in the musical scale must be spelled out.

Use these contractions to represent the words for which they stand, regardless of the part of speech involved. They are also used to represent whole proper names, such as  “Will Rogers”  and  “Thomas More.” 

It must be emphasized that these contractions can be used to represent whole words only, with some modifications as discussed in Lesson 4. Thus, c standing alone reads can; but c cannot be used as a part word to represent can in canopy because this would be read as the word copy. Similarly, x cannot be used for it in merit and h cannot be used for have in haven't.

The letter s cannot be added to any of these contractions to form the plural.  Thus, the plural of will is brailled  wills,  not  ws .

Note: An apparent exception to this rule is the use of the contraction for it in its. This word is considered a short-form word and will be studied in Lesson 11.
Drill 11

Practice brailling the following sentences.

1.	You may eat more ravioli if you desire, but you will not like it.
2.	Can boys from Camp Quail play baseball on that field every week?
3.	Do not set that donut on my bookcase.
4.	I am not so very well, as you can see.
5.	He is a just man, but not very humane.
6.	William's knowledge on that subject is rather vague.
7.	So few people like that petty politician—he will surely lose.
8.	Ronald can play do, re, mi quite well.
9.	Like it or not, we will visit Mr. More next week.
10.	Go away,  Will — I do not like you.
11.	Let us have two sweets.

4.2.1   With an Apostrophe
 	These contractions are used when followed by the apostrophe in the following combinations only:
c's  for  can's	t'd  for  that'd	x'd  for it'd         y'll    for you'll
c't  for  can't	t'll  for  that'll	x'll  for it'll         y're  for you're
p's  for  people's	t's    for   that's	x's  for it's          y've for you've
s's  for  so's	w's  for  will's	y'd  for you'd
They are also used when 's is added to a proper name to form the possessive, as in Will's hat or “Tom More's house.” They are not used when preceded by the apostrophe in an expression such as d'you or t'have.
4.2.2  With Hyphens  
       When words are joined by hyphens to form hyphenated compound words, each word maintains its whole-word integrity. Therefore, whole-word contractions may be used in hyphenated compound words, whether such words are brailled on one line or divided between lines.
However, these contractions represent whole words only and cannot be used in syllabicated words or to form parts of words. 
    Example:
So-fi-a!  If you don't get that canopy up soon my hair-do will go limp.
,so-fi-a6 ,if y don't get t 
canopy up soon my hair-d w g 
limp4
 4.2.3   With Slashes   
        One-cell whole-word contractions, even those followed by an apostrophe, are not used when they are in direct contact with a slash. A slash is spaced as in print.  So if in print there is a space between a word that could be contracted and a slash, the contraction is used. 
                Example:
                   Us/we will go soon.  ,us_/we w g soon4
Us / we will go soon.	 ,u _/ we w g soon4
can't/can	 can't_/can       	so/so's     so_/so's

4.2.4  Capitalization of These Contractions  
     Although these contractions consist of single letters, they stand for whole words. Therefore, when such words appear in print in full capitals, in braille the capitalized-word indicator precedes the contraction. 
               Example:
		 I can go home EVERY week!
   	,I c g home ,,e week6 
Remember: the capitalized-word indicator is not repeated after a hyphen in a fully-capitalized word because the hyphen is not a delimiter.
        Example:     CAN-DO!  ,,c-d6

Drill 12

Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	If I apply sun block it's very likely I won't get a sunburn.
2.	“JUST-DO-IT!’ yells Sam.
3.	Will's people will visit us next week, but Jack can't make it.
4.	Todd is quite a can-do guy;  not like my uncle at all.
5.	Willie will/won't play ball.
6.	A milk-can blocks every exit at James More's  Dairy.  
7.	“Deposit all soda-cans on my left,” Tracy tells patrons.
8.	Philip snubs us, but I will not do likewise, as I feel no ill will.
9.	If you make a will, I rather hope you'll give John that cottage on
  Lake Willet.
10.	A primitive people's tools may seem very crude but practical.
11.	That road is so bad; it'll take a week or more if you go that way.
12.	Self-knowledge is wisdom.
13.	I want t'have a bike like Brian has.

4.3   Whole-Word Contractions for:  and,  for,  of,   the,  with      and  Sequencing    
The next group of contractions to be studied is as follows:
and     &       (dots 12346)            the       !        (dots 2346)
for      =       (dots 123456)          with     )	 (dots 23456)
of        (	     (dots 12356)
Unlike the one-cell whole-word contractions just studied, the contractions for  and,  for,  of,   the, and with  are used to represent either whole words or parts of words.  When used as whole words or when two or more of them appear in sequence, these contractions, as well as the words  to,  into, and by  which you will learn about later, can, under very specific combinations, be brailled with no space between them.  This is called “sequencing”.  

Remember, when we learned the braille definition of word, (Section 1.7), we mentioned that there would be exceptions to that definition.  This is one of those exceptions.  Words that are joined under the “sequencing” rules retain their individual-word status.  Examples will demonstrate this later.

The chart below shows whether these words can attach to other such words that follow them.  For example,  for  can attach to  the  but not to  with.

   	  ↓   These words can       ↓    These words 
       ↓    attach  to                   ↓    that follow
           	  
		and                         	     for,   of,   the,  with,  a
		for  			           	     the,  a        
		of    		                	     the,  a   
      with 			           	     the,  a       
		the   	                     	     none                            
		a                             	     none       
Examples:
	The mayor will labor for and with the people of the village.
 	,! mayor w labor = &)! p (! village4
	Music for a Flute and a Piano
	,music =a ,flute &a ,piano
Notice that the sequence  &)!  --  “and with the”  --  in the first example, would appear to be a word since it is bounded by spaces.  However,  since it is the results of sequencing  three separate words, it is not treated as a single braille word.  You will see the effect of this rule when the various elements of the sequencing have different fonts, such as capitals,  italics,  etc.  
In the case where two or more of these contractions should be joined but there is not enough room at the end of the line for all of them, carry all such joined words over to a new line.
     Remember: Although whole-word contractions for  and,  for,  of,   the,  and with  can sometimes be joined to each other as shown in the above table, they cannot attach to the one-cell, whole-word contractions learned earlier.
          Example:
And for you, I have a gift.
,&= y1 ,I h a gift4
  [not]  ,&=Y1 ,I h a gift4
4.3.1  With punctuation and indicators 
	These contractions are not brailled together if any punctuation or indicators occur between them. Therefore, when two or more of these words are initially capitalized and follow one another in titles, headings, or other such material, they are not joined—and the appropriate capital indicator is placed before each of the words. Of course,  this does not occur in a capitalized phrase, since no capitalization indicator occurs between the words of the phrase.
   Examples:
       MUSIC FOR A FLUTE AND A HORN 
  ,,;music =a flute &a horn,'
Toni and The Dog 
	  ,toni & ,! ,dog
Dave looks and (with a smile) waves. 
  ,dave looks & _()a smile_) waves4 
4.3.2   In Hyphenated Compound Words 
     Like the one-cell whole-word contractions, the contractions for and, for, of, the, and with are used in hyphenated compound words. 
          Example:
 man-of-the-trade     man-(-!-trade
4.3.3 With Slashes 
     Unlike the one-cell whole-word contractions (the alphabet words), these contractions, whether used as whole words or parts of words (see 4.4 below), CAN be used when in contact with a slash. 
         Example:
           and/but    &_/but                us/we    us_/we
Drill 13
Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	We will go for a hike with the girls.
2.	The glee club sang “For The Glory Of The Flag.”
3.	David gave a book review on Jack London's THE CALL OF THE      WILD.
4.	The play at the Orpheum is just a run-of-the-mill melodrama.
5.	I'll have a salad and/or just a cup of tea.
4.4   Part-Word Contractions for:  and,  for, of,   the, with   
In general, these contractions are used as parts of words wherever the letters they represent occur. Thus, the sign for and is used in hand, sandy, and Andrew; the sign for for is used in forge and forum; the sign for of is used in  off, office, and roof; the sign for the is used in then, Thelma, and theory;       and the sign for with is used in withhold and withe. Note that the use of these signs does not depend on pronunciation; whether the vowel is short or long, whether the consonant is hard or soft , or in the case of the sign for of whether the o is part of a double vowel,  as in roof.  
   Example:
       Ethel and Sandy fell off  the platform and onto the bandbox.
      ,e!l & ,s&y fell (f ! plat=m & onto ! 
    b&box4
Remember: When these contractions are used as parts of words, those words cannot be joined to other whole word contractions. 
     Example:
     land of the people    l& (! p       [not]   l&(! P

4.5  Rules for All Part-Word Contractions  
In future lessons you will learn many contractions like  and, for, of,  the,  and with  that can be used as parts of words. The following rules apply to all part-word contractions.
4.5.1  When All of the Letters of a Contraction Fall into the Same Syllable  
     A part-word contraction is always used when all of the letters of the contraction fall into the same syllable, as in  profligate,  profit, and  formula.
4.5.2  Syllable Divisions  
     There are special rules regarding the use of contractions that bridge over syllable divisions. For purposes of clarity, the terms major and minor are used in this manual to explain the different types of syllable division. These divisions may also be referred to as primary and incidental syllable divisions.
4.5.2.1  Major Syllable Divisions  
     Do not use a part-word contraction when the letters of the contraction would overlap a major syllable division. Major syllable divisions occur in just three places:
(1)	  Between a prefix and a base or root word. Thus, the  of  contraction is not used in  professor,  profane or profile. Note that the letters pro are not always prefixes—as in  profit  and  product, for example.
(2)	  Between a suffix and a base or root word. There are no examples using the contractions you have learned so far to demonstrate this rule, but you will become acquainted with some in Lesson 6.
(3)	  Between the components of a solid compound word. Therefore, the 
      of  contraction cannot be used in photoflood or twofold.
All other syllable divisions are considered minor syllable divisions.
4.5.2.2  Minor Syllable Divisions  
 	Part-word contractions are used when they overlap minor, or incidental, syllable divisions, regardless of pronunciation, as in sofa  ( s(a ),  Sofia     (,s(ia ),  and  scandal   (sc&al).  A few exceptions to this rule will be discussed later.
4.5.3 Contraction Preference  
     When a choice must be made between two possible contractions, preference is given to the contraction that saves the greater amount of space. It is for this reason that the sign for with is used in withe rather than the sign for the. 
4.5.4  Word Etymology
     Many of the rules in braille require some understanding of the structure and roots of words.  A good dictionary includes the etymology of each word, thus indicating prefixes and suffixes, which can be helpful when trying to decide whether a contraction should or should not be used in braille. The Typical and Problem Words list in Appendix D is also a helpful tool. It lists over 2,500 words showing proper syllable division and contraction usage. 
     An even more comprehensive source is the Braille Enthusiast's Dictionary (compiled and edited by Alan J. Koenig and M. Cay Holbrook, ISBN 0-9634229-7-9, SCALARS Publishing, P.O. Box 382834, Germantown, TN, 38183-2824,  1-901-737-0001,   www.scalarspublishing.com).

Drill 14
        Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.		The family that lives next door took Theodore and me for a ride on the trolley.
2.	He spoke the phrase with emphasis: “The land of the free and the home of the brave!”
3.	You will profit from the lecture on mathematical theory, and for once, you will see the value of it.
4.	Foreign travel has a twofold purpose: It helps you relax, and it gives you an idea of the way other peoples live.
5.	You can tie the bundle with the withe that's withheld  from the other job.
6.	My wreck of a sofa looks as if it came from Europe with the Pilgrims.
7.	I will live with and provide for the forlorn old man.
8.	Samuel will give the girl he is fond of a brand-new Ford.
9.	We'll take off for Cleveland on a plane and, for the sake of economy, we'll return on a bus.
10.	Sandra forgot the sandals, the bandanna, the box of candy and the  
        thermos bottle that I left on the sofa.
11.	The professor will hold a forum on foreign policy.
12.	Twanda gave me back my copy of Bunyan's “Pilgrim's Progress,” 
        with profuse apologies.
13.	Patrice will play next the Andante from Haydn's “Surprise 
       Symphony.”
Reading Practice

Write the following sentences in longhand. Compare your work with the print version in Appendix A
 
#1] ,HOLD ! H&LE (! SUITCASE S X WON'T
  DROP4
#2] ,Z ) ALL P1 ,ADAM HAS FAULTS4
#3] ,8,=! LOVE ( ,PETE.-QUIT T6,0
#4] ,W GIVES ME ! WILLIES4
#5] ,T'S V PRETTY1 ,&REA.-DID Y COLOR X8
#6] ,C A CANNIBAL EAT FRUIT8
#7] ,I'D R SEE ,DAN ,R AT #7:00]
#8] ,X'S N TOO COLD1 B BUTTON ,S&Y'S
  COAT ANYWAY4
#9] ,DON'T CALL T ,8C-D,0 GUY A DODO4
#10] ,QUIET6 ,QUIT T6 ,X IS Q LATE4
#11] ,D Y H ! K X TAKES = T JOB8
#12] ,,G-=-X1 ,GO(Y6
#13] ,X IS LIKELY T ,JACK W L T COAT4
#14] ,JIMMY ,FROME RAN HOME F ! POND4
#15] ,S1 LET'S ALL G VISIT ,LONDON'S
  ,SOHO4
#16] ,Z SOON Z ,I C1 ,I W MAKE C&Y4
#17] ,I SEE M & M ,MORESQUE DESIGNS4    
#18] ,8,&=! LIFE ( ME1 ,I C'T SEE MY
  GLASSES1,0 CRIES ,W&A4
#19] ,! P (! ,P'S ,REPUBLIC WANT AN 
  EQUAL VOICE4

EXERCISE
   Prepare the following sentences in list format for submission to the Instructor. 
                                                            LESSON 4
1.	I will not help you with the essay, for that is not quite fair.
2.	Will has an adequate theoretical knowledge of the subject but can't apply that knowledge very well.
3.	I can go with you, but I’d rather not. 
4.	We fill every vacancy as soon as we can.
5.	Sandy’s plane took off from Dulles Airport at noon.
6.	Do is a note on the diatonic scale.   
7.	Just a bit of humor helps people forget small worries.
8.	Let us write at once and ask for tickets for AS YOU LIKE IT.  
9.	I'd like t’have that. 
10.	 William and Theresa will gather forget-me-nots from the woods.
11.	 Mike Sanford tries, but it’s not likely that he will make the grade.  
12.	 Do you want two cans of plums as well as the can of apricots?
13.	 The have-nots of  Turnville  will profit from the mayor's new rule.
14.	 Oh, Randy, will you give Esther that pecan? You ate all the almonds.  
15.	 Let us locate Sofia on the map of Europe. 
16.	 The husky sophomore halfback made the goal that won the game. 
17.	 Cy’s language is very crude and likewise profane; and for a fact I hope he will  reform.
18.	 I'd go with you, but my d--n rheumatism keeps me home.
19.	 Will you ask for and pay my bill at the hotel?
20.	 The woman I spoke with a week ago came back for more details. 
21.	 Swift's THE BATTLE OF THE BOOKS is a satire.
22.	 Pick the appropriate response: My pants do/don’t fit anymore.
23.	 As the happy-go-lucky man races onto the railroad platform, he exclaims: “I’ve got no more’n two seconds for adieus!”
24.	 “That −− so-and-so took off with my new truck!” 
25.	 The Athenians won a moral victory at Thermopylae.  
26.	 San Francisco, California, has a very unusual climate.
27.	 The girls will travel with and baby-sit my small son on the trip. 
28.	 The Netherlands is a land of man-made dikes and canals.  
29.	 The nosy visitor drawls: “I just met up with Aunt Ethel, and Auntie 
	gave me  all the village scandal and ‘dirt’.”
30.	 Fortune is an elusive will-o'-the-wisp. 
31.	 Hit with a rock, the pickpocket writhed with agony.  
32.   A force of 1,000 Yankees securely held the fort despite the very valiant 	assaults of the Rebels.  
33.   He is not quite as tall as I am, but he is more agile.  
34.   Mandy spoke with emphasis: “I demand that you probate Uncle 	Elmore's and Aunt Alexandra's wills at once.”
35.   I have a jigsaw puzzle for the kids, and for the adults I have a box of 	homemade candy.
36.   For the next lesson you will practice the Andante of the Sonata.
37.   The objective of the naval campaign is twofold, the blockade of all ports of the foe and the removal of the foe's fleet as an active force.  
38.   The plane rose 15,000 feet — a safe altitude for that region. 
39.   The grey-and-black clad forces met at the crossroads.

Lesson 5
Whole-Word Contractions for:   child,  shall,  this,  which,  out,  still Part-Word Contractions for:   ch,  sh,  th,  wh,  ou,  st 
Ordinal Numbers,  Plural and Possessive Numbers
5.1  In General
Like the contractions  and,,  for,  of,  the,  and  with,  the contractions to be studied in this lesson represent certain letter combinations that can represent a whole word or part of a word. When standing alone, or when attached to font indicators, they represent a whole word beginning with those letter combinations. However, when they are connected to other letters they take on their letter meaning and become part of a word. These contractions and their meanings are as follows:
Contraction	Whole-Word Meaning	Part-Word Meaning

		   *			child				ch
		   %			shall				sh
		   ?			this				th
		   :			which				wh
		   \			out				ou
		   /			still				st

5.2  Whole-Word Contractions for:  child,  shall,  this,  which,  out,  still 
       When these contractions stand alone they represent whole words. 
            Example:   	
                    This child, which is still out, shall eat late.
                   ,? *1 : is / \1 % eat late4
5.2.1 With an Apostrophe  
     The only instances in which these whole-word contractions may be used with the apostrophe are in the words child's and still's. Thus, the whole-word contraction for this is not used in this'll and the whole-word contraction for which is not used in which'll.

5.2.2  In Hyphenated Compound Words
    These whole-word contractions are joined to other words by the hyphen to form hyphenated compound words, whether such words are written on one line or divided between lines. 
         Examples:
        still-life               out-and-       \-&-            child-of-          *-(-	 
   /-life          out lie        \ lie          the-dawn         !-dawn
5.2.3  As Proper Names  
       Like other whole-word contractions, these signs are used to represent proper names, such as (Still), Morris (and) Associates.

Drill 15
Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	Does the child want this book?
2.	Shall I pick out a new hat for you?
3.	Which is correct, “I shall” or “I will?”
4.	This brew came from Uncle Randy's new still.
5.	The breeze blew my notes every-which-way.
6.	That child's hair-do is rather out-of-date.
7.	“Which way out?”
8.	My old roommate from Still Pond still pays me a visit every fall.
9.	I keep busy with this-and-that.
5.3  Part-Word Contractions for:   ch,  sh,  th,  wh,  ou,   st  

In general, these signs are used as part-word contractions whenever the letters they represent occur within a word, even if they overlap a minor syllable division.  Thus, the sign for ch is used in Chicago and scratch; the sign for sh in shoe and hush; the sign for th in thorn and filth; the sign for wh  in what and whale; the sign for ou in proud, four, and coupon; the sign for st in state, past, and pistol; the signs for th and st in thistle; the signs for ou and ch in touch; and the signs for wh and st in whitest.

When St. is used as an abbreviation, as for Street or Saint, it is notational.  
       Examples:    
           St. Peter    ;,st] ,pet]
	   Broad  St.   ,broad ;,st] 
Whenever these contractions are joined to other letters they take on their part-word meaning and lose their whole-word status. This rule applies even if a word is divided between lines and the letters of a contraction stand on a line alone. 
     Examples:
         grandchild     gr&*ild               grand‑           gr&-
                                                             child           *ild	 
5.3.1  Prefixes  
     As stated in the previous lesson, a contraction should not be used where part of the letters fall into a prefix and the rest fall into a base or root word. Thus, the sign for sh cannot be used in mishap or mishandle; the sign for ou cannot be used in prounion; and the sign for st cannot be used in mistake or mistrust.
5.3.2  Solid (Unhyphenated) Compound Words  
     Part-word contractions are not used where they fall partly into one component of a solid compound word and partly into another. Thus, the sign for sh is not used in dachshund; the sign for th is not used in porthole; the sign for wh is not used in rawhide; and the sign for st is not used in crosstrees.
5.3.3  Contraction Preference  
     As you learned in the last lesson, when you have a choice between two contractions, the one that uses the least space is usually preferred. Therefore, the contraction for the, not the contraction for th, is used in theory, mathematics, theology, and the like.
5.3.4   Sh   
     When sh is used to mean an admonition to silence, the contraction for sh cannot be used because it bears its whole-word meaning shall when standing alone. The letters sh, when standing alone or with punctuation only, are notational, where contractions are not allowed.   If additional letters are added to sh, as in shhh,  the word is still notational. and the sh contraction is not used. 
     Example: 
        Tex recites, “Sh! Shhh! Out of the canyon ride the bandits!”
	    ,tex recites1 ;,8,sh_6 ;,shhh_6 ,\    	  (! canyon ride ! b&its6,0

5.3.5  St 
	When in print the words Street or Saint are abbreviated as St, with or without a    period,  they are notational.  
            Example: 
           At South St turn left;  St. Ann's Church is on West Street. 
     ,at ,s\? ;,st turn left2 ;,st]
   ,ann's ,*ur* is on ,we/ ,/reet4
5.4  With Slashes 
 Do not use the whole-word contractions for  child,  shall,  this,  which,  out  and still when they are in direct contact with a slash.  The part-word contractions for  ch,  sh,  th,  wh,  ou, and  st  however, can be used next to the slash.  
       Example:
	     Which/what tie shall I put on? 
	  ,:i*_/:at tie % ,I put on8
5.5   Ordinal Numbers:  Plural or Possessive Numbers
5.5.1  Ordinal Numbers
The contractions for st and th should be used when writing ordinal numbers such as 1st and 4th  (or 1st and 4th).   It should be noted that in print the second and third ordinal numbers are normally formed by adding the endings nd and rd to the cardinal numbers 2 and 3, respectively.  Occasionally, however, they are represented by adding only the letter d to the cardinal number  In each case the ordinal ending should reflect the print.
MODE  ALERT!  It is important to recognize that, although the digital part of ordinal numbers is notational, the ordinal endings are narrative.  This makes such  words  “hybrid” -  that is, a mix of notational and narrative modes in one word.  This requires an indicator to “switch” from notational to narrative or from narrative to notational, within a hybrid word. This indicator is "  (dot 5) and is used as follows:
      Example:
		Does Stan live on 1st,  2d,  3d or  4th  Street?
		,does ,/an live on #1"/1 #2"d1 #3"d1 		  or #4"? ,/reet8
Notice  that after the ordinal ending, which is narrative,  we must use narrative  punctuation.
5.5.2   Plural or Possessive Numbers
     The plural or possessive form of a number requires the same “hybrid” treatment. Since the digits are notational and the s is narrative,  the word is hybrid.  Hybrid words are explained more fully in Section 12.4 and in Appendix C.
     Here it is necessary to switch from the notational mode to the narrative mode in the middle of a word. This requires the dot-5 “switch” before the apostrophe.
	Example:
1990's      #1990"'s               
Plural numbers  (1990s)  are done the same way, except that the apostrophe is omitted.
Drill 16
Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	Shhh! That shrill whistle annoys me.
2.	The churlish dog chases the mischievous child off the grass.
3.	Uncle Jonathan still has the shoe store on 21st St.
4.	He came out from St. Louis, Missouri, only two months ago.
5.	The ship, which will dock at Southampton on the 22d or 23d of April, will return on the 31st.
6.	What d'you expect for Christmas from Uncle Nathaniel?
7.	Whether you like it or not,	I won't make another mistake like this.
8.	Did Mr. Whitney mishandle the school funds?
9.	I shall choose another restaurant, for my family simply will not eat any hothouse tomatoes.
10.	We shall/shall not go with you.
11.	Our van can hold Mom's wheelchair.
12.	Meg just loves the out-of-doors; she is a happy child and, I admit, my favorite grandchild.
13.  They’ll eat the banana, which’ll suit me.

Reading Practice

Write the following sentences in longhand. Compare your work with the print version in Appendix A.

#1] ,:Y DON'T Y WAIT & DIG ! PO/HOLE
  NEXT WEEK8
#2] ,HE C'T D X )\T MY SAY-S4
#3] ,SEE T *8 ,%E /OLE MY *IPS6
#4] ;,shHH_6 ,LOOK1 !Y / H ! :ISKEY / \
  ON ! BACK =TY4
#5] ,:E!R ,I VOTE OR N1 ,:IT W SEE
  VICTORY1 : W MAKE ME V HAPPY4
#6] ,! WOMAN )! /E?OSCOPE IS ,/ELLA'S
  PHYSICIAN4
#7] ,? IS ! COTTAGE )! ?AT* ON ! RO(1
  ,MAT!W4
#8] ,8,\/ T B\RGEOIS CREEP F MY B\DOIR1 AT ONCE6,0 ,MADAME ,B\LEY IMPLORES4
#9] ,? iS ! #1"/ GRADE ROOM.-T ROOM IS = #2"ND GRADE4
#10] ,: % WE H1 S\R PICKLES OR SWEET 
  RELI% ON \R S&WI*ES8
#11] ,8,T IS AN \-&-\ LIE6,0 ,*RI/Y %\TS L\DLY4
#12] ,A FAVORITE PORT O' CALL = T\R %IPS IS ;,st] ,?OMAS4
#13] ,/ILLMORE IS A VILLAGE ,I'LL VISIT ON MY NEXT TRIP4

EXERCISE
Prepare the following Exercise for submission to the instructor.

LESSON 5
1.	The child's worn-out doll is still a favorite toy.
2.	Mr. McDougall lives at 4325 43rd St., Chevy Chase.
3.	Christy's closet is full of sheets, washcloths, dishcloths, and other household items.
4.	The story of Jonah and the whale thrills my small grandchild.
5.	We shall move from St. Paul Street as soon as we can locate a satisfactory house.
6.	On the 21st of this month school'll close for a couple of weeks, which'll cause nobody grief.
7.	Still College is a famous school of osteopathy, and Still's curriculum is very broad.
8.	Christmas celebrates the birth of the Child of Bethlehem.
9.	The lively man sang tunes, told outlandish stories, and did a jig.
10.	 Without Kathy's help we'd have lost the game.
11.	 You may go outside and play while I bathe and dress.
12.	  The smallest mishap will cause the failure of our plan.
13.	  We stand at the threshold of further, more significant, space travel.
14.	 I hope the jockey doesn't strike the horse with that rawhide whip.
15.	  D'you suppose I can buy fresh fruit at the store on 22nd Street?
16.   “Let's hunt up an out-of-the-way place for our still,” proposes Whiskey Joe.
17.	The Whitmans expect the new baby on the 29th of July.
18.	This Christmas Grandpa will recite A VISIT FROM ST. NICHOLAS for Sheila.
19.	Why did the Czechoslovakians mistrust the Austrians?
20.	We ate a tasty lunch at a Childs Restaurant and then saw a top-notch play.
21.	The boys will take the new shallop out for a three-hour sail on the 	Wabash.
22.	Both of the candidates expect an out-and-out victory.
23.	This is a list of my husband's favorite authors: Hawthorne, Poe, Walt 
        Whitman, Shelley, Johann Goethe, Balzac, Proust, Mann, John   		Galsworthy,  Chekhov and Dostoevski.
24.	Every August we escape the metropolis for a few weeks of outdoor life on   	the Thousand Islands.
25.	Which story will you publish?
26.	“If you devour all that fresh fruit you'll get a stomach ache,”  she told 	the gluttonous child.
27.	  It's a shame that we can't provide that destitute child a home.
28.	  A loud cry of anguish came from the boy: “Ouch! My tooth aches!”
29.	  The prounion forces will urge a strike for more safety devices.
30.	  I still recall the fury of the big storm of '85, which came up out of the  	southeast.
31.	  “Sh,” admonishes the nurse, “the child's at last asleep.”
32.	  My husband took our dachshund out for a walk.
33.	  A thistle has thorns.
34.	  You look quite ill; shall I call a cab?
35.	  The candy store has chocolates, which is exactly what I want.
36.	  I wish you'd stand still so I can fix this hem.
37.	  You're a knock-out, Beth, with that hair-do.
38.	  Mom says this is a list of thou-shall-not rules.
39.	  Put out/douse the fire.
40.	  This'll go well with my new shirt.
41.	  That child is still-as-a-mouse.
42.	Can you scratch my back?  It itches.

Lesson 6

Part-Word Contractions for:   ar,  ed,  er,  gh,  ow,  ble,  ing 
6.1  In General   
The following contractions are part-word contractions; they cannot be used as whole words except in the specific cases discussed in Section 6.4.  
 Contraction     Part-Word Meaning
>    	 ar
$     	ed
]     	 er 
<    	gh
[     	ow
#                     	ble
+     	ing
	Except where specific rules limit their use, these contractions are used as parts of words wherever the letters they represent occur. Thus:
      the sign for ed is used in:
          Edith (Ed)i(th), need ne(ed), edelweiss (ed)elweiss, sedan s(ed)an, red r(ed)
      the sign for ar is used in:
         Arkansas (Ar)kansas, cheddar (ch)(ed)d(ar), garbage g(ar)bage, bare b(ar)e
      the sign for er is used in:
        error (er)ror, whimper (wh)imp(er), fern f(er)n, Peru P(er)u, sherry (sh)(er)ry 
      the sign for gh is used in:
        ghoulish (gh)(ou)li(sh), laugh lau(gh), sight si(gh)t, thorough (th)or(ou)(gh)
       the sign for ow is used in:
        own (ow)n, towel t(ow)el, show (sh)(ow), toward t(ow)(ar)d, drowsy dr(ow)sy 
      the sign for ble is used in:
        marble m(ar)(ble)  Bible Bi(ble), goblet go(ble)t, problem pro(ble)m
      the sign for ing is used in:
        swinging  sw(ing)(ing), ginger g(ing)(er), finger f(ing)(er), fringe fr(ing)e

6.1.1   Prefixes 
 	Like the contractions previously studied, these contractions are not used where part of the letters of the contraction fall into a prefix and the rest into a root or base word. Thus, the sign for ed is not used in reduce, deduce, edict, predict, or predate. Similarly, the sign for er is not used in derogatory, prerogative, erect, erupt, rerun, or derail. The sign for ble is not used in sublet, nor the sign for ar in infrared.

In a few words, the beginning letters se constitute a prefix meaning “apart.” When that prefix is followed by the letter d, as in seduce and seditious, the ed contraction cannot be used because it would overlap between the prefix and the root word. An exception occurs in the case of the word sedate, where the sign for ed is not used even though se is not a prefix. 

Another exception to this rule occurs in a few familiar words that begin with the letters ar. In the easily read words around, arise, and arose the ar contraction is used, even though in these cases the a is a prefix.

Note: Remember the very strong rule that says that when all of the letters of a contraction fall into the same syllable, the contraction is used. Although the er contraction cannot be used in derive because de is a prefix, it is used in derivation because both the e and the r fall into the same syllable.
6.l.2 Suffixes 
	These contractions are not used where part of the letters comprising them falls into a base or root word and the remainder into a suffix. Thus, the sign for ed is not used in freedom or boredom.

Use caution when transcribing words that end in ry and ery. When the suffix ry is added to words such as image, rifle, and savage, creating imagery (im/age/ry), riflery  (ri/fle/ry), and savagery (sav/age/ry), the er contraction cannot be used. However, when ry is added to slave and bake to create slavery (slav/er/y) and bakery (bak/er/y), the er contraction is used because all the letters of the contraction fall within the same syllable—a rule that takes precedence over the suffix rule.
6.l.3  Solid Compound Words  
	As has been stated previously, contractions are not used where they fall partly into one component of a solid compound word and partly into another. Thus,  the sign for ed is not used in kettledrum,  the sign for er is not used in stateroom, the sign for th is not used in sweetheart, and the sign for gh is not used in foghorn. Nor is the st contraction used in proper names such as Johnstown or Charlestown. (Note, however, that when such names are shortened to Johnston or Charleston, the st contraction is used.)
6.1.4  Digraphs (Diphthongs) and Trigraphs   
	In order to preserve proper pronunciation, the letters of a digraph or a trigraph must not be separated. There are exceptions to this rule that will be discussed in later lessons.
•  A DIGRAPH is any two adjoining letters that combine to make one sound, e.g., the ph in graphic.
•  A DIPHTHONG is a digraph composed of two adjoining vowels that make one sound, e.g., the oi in coil.
•   A TRIGRAPH is three letters combining to make one sound, e.g., the eau in bureau.
Because the ae in aerial and the oe in Goering are diphthongs and cannot be separated, the er contraction cannot be used; nor can the sign for ed be used in Oedipus, encyclopaedia, or aedile. Ble cannot be contracted in tableau because to do so would separate the letters of the trigraph eau.

There is an exception to this rule. When common suffixes such as er and ed are added to base words ending in a vowel, which sometimes creates a digraph or trigraph, the er and ed contractions are used. Examples:
      cano(ed)        to(ed)       (sh)o(ed)      (sh)o(er)	     emb(ar)go(ed)
      boo(ed)         woo(er)     do(er)	     (sh)ampoo(er)
•   Note that not all adjoining vowels are diphthongs. For example, in the words coeducate and coerce the ed and er contractions are used because the oe does not combine to form a diphthong (one sound)—and all of the letters of the contraction fall into the same syllable.
•  Note: The diphthongs ae and oe are sometimes printed together  (æ,  œ). In    braille they are transcribed as separate letters. Use a transcriber's note (to be studied in Lesson 12)  to explain this change.
6.1.5 Avoiding Difficulty in Pronunciation  
	Another general restriction on the use of contractions is that they are not used if their use would cause difficulty in pronunciation, especially in uncommon or rarely used words. For example, the sign for ed is not used in Airedale, battledore, skedaddle, or predacious, nor should the sign for ing be     used in lingerie or distingue. The er contraction is not used in diaeresis (di/aer/e/sis) because although aer constitutes a trigraph and a syllable, the use of the er contraction would make this unfamiliar word difficult to pronounce.
6.l.6 Consonants Pronounced Separately  
	Do not use a contraction when two adjoining consonants are pronounced separately. As a consequence, the gh contraction is not used in shanghaied, nor is the wh contraction used in towhee. There are several exceptions to this rule—especially in common, familiar words. For example, the contraction for ing is used in ginger and harbinger even though the n and g fall into different syllables.
Note: Until the student becomes accustomed to traditional braille treatment of words that contain diphthongs or have adjoining consonants that are pronounced separately, it is best to consult the Typical and Problem Word List in Appendix D or the Braille Enthusiast's Dictionary. (See 4.5.4)
6.1.7  Numbers Followed by Contractions
	 Just as with ordinal numbers, when certain contractions are added to a number, the word is hybrid. Since this constitutes a switch from the notational to the narrative mode, the dot 5 “switch” is required, after which contractions are permitted. 
           Examples:
             John got 911ed for medical help.       
                ,john got #911"$ = m$ical help4
             It's not worth a lot,  but I'll give you a l0er for it.     
		  ,x's n wor? A lot1 b ,I'll give y a 		#10"] = x4 
This rule applies only to single-cell, part-word contractions. Other types of contractions should not be used in unconventional number-letter  combinations.

Drill 17
	    Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	Our corner drugstore is having a big sale on toothbrushes, cigars, bath powder, cigarette lighters, bubble bath, dishes, thimbles and needles.
2.	The Hagerstown Almanac predicts snow for March 29.
3.	 If my salary is reduced, we can't redecorate the living room as   	planned.
4.	He derived a huge profit from the sale of barley last year.
5.	“Will you erase the blackboard, Lonnie, and redo the lesson?”
6.	Victorian ladies loved battledore, a game played with a racket and
a shuttlecock.
7.	Carol arose early this morning and studied for the arithmetic test.
8.	The colony Sir Walter Raleigh sponsored at Roanoke predated the Jamestown colony.
9.	 A thorough knowledge of the Spanish language is a prerequisite for the South American service.
10.	  “What a hat — it's absolutely smashing!”
11.	 The Russians slaughtered the Hungarian Freedom Fighters with tanks and artillery.
12.	 THE TEMPEST is full of striking imagery.
13.	 The blast of the foghorn warned of lurking danger.
14.	 The tuberose is a fragrant, white, lily-like flower.
15.	 Our new neighbors came from the town of Rosedale, Michigan.
16.	 He plans on making a career of aerodynamics.
17.	 Dick Hoerner starred for the Los Angeles Rams.
18.	 The Roman aedile supervised the games at the Colosseum.
19.	 Shanghai is a port on the Huangpu River. 

6.2   Ing  or  ble  at the Beginning of a Word  
There is one restriction on the use of the signs for ing and ble that does not apply to the other contractions in this lesson, namely, that they are not used at the beginning of a word. Thus, the sign for ing is not used in ingot, nor the sign for ble in blemish or bled.  Even when such a word comes  after the hyphen in a hyphenated compound word, as in once-blemished, the contraction cannot be used.  Notice that, although the symbol for ble is the same as the numeric indicator, the non-use of ble at the beginning of a word prevents any misinterpretation. 

6.3  Retaining the Usual Braille Form of a Base Word  
Still another general rule restricting the use of contractions is that a contraction is not used if it would result in an alteration of the usual braille form of a base word. Thus, because the usual braille form of the word blemish does not contain the contraction for ble, this contraction must not be used when a prefix is added to it, as in unblemished. Similarly, the word ingenuous does not use the sign for ing, nor does the word disingenuous. The word blend does not contain the sign for ble, nor should the word pitchblende. In such words, the contractions are not used whether the word is written on one braille line or whether it is divided between lines. 
      Examples:
         noseble(ed)                  nose-	 	 
                                        ble(ed)

6.4  Part-Word Signs Standing Alone 
Even though the part-word signs studied in this lesson have no whole-word meanings, they are used to represent the proper name Ed, the abbreviation Ed. (editor), the vocal sound of hesitation er, and the exclamation ow. 
     Example:
         Ed mumbled,  “Er — I hope the shot won't hurt — Ow!”
    ,$ mum#d1 ,8,].-,I hope ! %ot 
   won't hurt.-,[6,0

6.5  Choice Between Alternative Contractions  

6.5.1  Preference for Contractions Saving Greater Space  
	Where a choice must be made between two alternative contractions or combinations of contractions, preference should be given to that contraction or combination of contractions that uses the fewest number of braille cells.
            Examples:
	   ba(the)s  	  [not]   	ba(th)es
	   (with)(er)	  [not]   	wi(the)r
	   m(ar)(ble)d	  [not]   	m(ar)bl(ed)
	   tum(ble)r	  [not]   	tumbl(er)

6.5.2  Preference for the Contractions for:  and,  for,  of,  the, and with 
     Where alternative contractions or combinations of them would occupy the same amount of space, preference is given to the part-word contractions for and, for , of,  the, and with. 
          Examples:
	bro(the)r 	 [not]	bro(th)(er)
	nor(the)rn         [not]	nor(th)(er)n
    	soo(the)d          [not]      	   soo(th)(ed)

Drill 18

   Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	Ginger ale will quiet an upset stomach now and then.
2.	“I Got Spurs That Jingle Jangle Jingle” sings the carefree western cowhand.
3.	Her hair is slightly tinged with gray, but her eyes have the sparkle of youth.
4.	During the storm the gale blew all the flower pots off the front porch.
5.	While visiting Switzerland, we learned that the edelweiss is a favorite flower of that area.
6.	Aloysius is a brilliant scholar, but he will not study without coercion.
7.	Ed's plane landed on the fringe of the runway.
8.	I didn't like boxing practice last week; it left me with a nosebleed.
9.	Doctor Sam Johnston has an unblemished record as a surgeon.
10.	Frederick's nostrils savored the tantalizing aroma of coffee arising from the downstairs flat.
11.	“Ow!” shouted the professor as he dropped the stack of books.
12.	“Let's see,” pondered Jerry, “it's—er—four more weeks until school is out.”
13.	She gave Steve a withering look and exclaimed, “I wish you'd bathe every now and then!”
14.	She loathed the bitter northern climate; and that is why she soon moved 	south.
15.	The cricket is the harbinger of the early approach of the fall of the year.
16.	Erika gave a sigh of boredom as she waited for the others.
17.	The seductive perfume of flowers filled the night air.
18.	This marble-top coffee table looks very nice with a modern sofa.
19.	The child coughed, and her sister sneezed.
20.	Though the policeman is tough, he is fair.

Reading Practice
Write the following sentences in longhand. Compare your work with the print version in Appendix A.
#1] ,I C'T FIGURE \ :AT HE iS SAY+1 HE   MUM#S  S4 
#2] ,I WANT FREEDOM F ! DAILY DRUDG]Y (          
  my JOB4
#3] ,NO# GOT A JOB AT ! LOCAL BAK]Y BAK+ 
  ROLLS & C(FEE CAKES4
#4] ,! %[] WAT] RUNS SL[] IF ! VALVE IS 
  L[]4
#5] ,R+ ,MADAME N[.-TELL H] ,$I? IS BR++ 
    LUN*EON4
#6] ,PUT ! TA#T ON ! TA#4
#7] ,H]B]T IS A P$ANTIC FELL[4
#8] ,WE'LL SIGNAL ! AEROPLANE & GIVE 
  ,]IC W>N+ (! /ORM4
#9] ,IS ! C> P>K$ \TSIDE ! G>AGE8
#10] ,:AT A <A/LY SI<T4
#11] ,>TI/1 ,ALEXIS ,ROCKMAN1 DRAWS 
   LOVELY PICTURES ( TROPICAL =E/S4
#12] ,: W Y H1 ! TUNA S&WI* OR ! BEEF8
#13] ,:ILE Y >E AWAY1 WE W TAKE ! *
    SKAT+4 
#14] ,? IS T]RI#6 ,H[ W WE GET \8
#15] ,8,% WE WALTZ8,0 HE ASK$ S(TLY4
#16] ,P :O >E OV]WEI<T NE$ LI<T DIETS &
    LOTS ( EX]CISE4
#17] ,FOLL[+ ! DYNAMITE BLA/1 ! MUD
  OOZ$ D[N ! HILLSIDE4

              EXERCISE

        Prepare the following Exercise for submission to the instructor. 
          LESSON 6
1.	“The moving finger writes and having writ moves on.”—Omar Khayyam
2.	The town sorely needed more civic progress and a change of politicians.
3.	It is highly probable that the bill will pass overwhelmingly.
4.	The remark Meg made is far from flattering, I can assure you.
5.	George Washington, a redoubtable soldier, excelled as a statesman as well.
6.	Jack says the towhee resembles the sparrow, but I don't agree.
7.	The volcano erupted, causing serious loss of life and property.
8.	She will sublet her house during her sojourn abroad.
9.	Hitler, Goering and Himmler ruled the Third Reich with an iron hand.
10.	The Atlantic Charter proclaimed the “Four Freedoms.”
11.	The new doghouse will keep Rover warm during the cold months.
12.	The cut on Tanya's forefinger bled profusely.
13.	The kettledrums are slightly off pitch, but once we get them fixed 	nobody will call our orchestra mediocre.
14.	Gramp's old radio has an outside aerial.
15.	They practiced riflery for an hour.
16.	As the waitress set the salad on the table, he looked at it curiously 	and queried, “Did I order this, or— er—did another person want it?”
17.	The Romans respected the aediles, who kept law and order.
18.	Michael's Airedale, Tweedledum, won third prize at the local dog show.
19.	The tiger is a predacious animal.
20.	Boys shanghaied on the streets of Liverpool served on sailing ships.
21.	The two outstanding track stars will rerun the hundred-meter dash.
22.	Harry feels Margaret sings like a mockingbird, but Paul has another idea.
23.	The coercive acts of the military turned people away from them.
24.	William Morrow published  Nevil Shute's  TRUSTEE FROM THE 	TOOLROOM posthumously.
25.	The United States Army will not tolerate malingerers.
26.	Are you taking a stateroom for the trip home?                 
27.   On arriving at Singapore, Edmond cabled the Chicago office for further   	orders.                                                                                                                    
28.	The Cherry Blossom Festival is emblematic of Japanese-American 	mutual respect.
29.	Roger Babson predicted the stock market crash of 1929.
30.	Our proceeds from the last bingo game exceeded anything we anticipated.
31.	I've promised Mom that I will take care of Mr. Snow's widow.
32.	An unblemished record is a valuable asset for any politician.
33.	While visiting Cairo I arose at five for the purpose of hearing the prayer call from the mosque.
34.	Any adverse criticism of America's foreign policy arouses Howard's anger.
35.	“Ow!”cried Ed, as the doctor roughly removed the bandage.
36.	OEDIPUS REX is a famous tragedy of Sophocles.
37.	The plants are withered from lack of water.
38.	The melody of The Lost Chord soothes and relaxes my tired nerves.
39.	The COURIER-JOURNAL carried a scathing editorial on the abuse of the magistrate's prerogatives.
40.	He spoke eruditely and with fervor on the art of the Edwardian Era.
41.	Eddie, Sherry, and Edythe will go downhill skiing on the 17th of 	March.
42.	Hannah Marie wore pearl earrings and a brooch set with amethysts for the dress rehearsal.
43.	The dignified Duchess hired a sedan chair for her tour of Shanghai.
44.	The governor ordered the seditious periodical suppressed.
45.	The doctor ordered a sedative for the hysterical victim.

In Appendix E  ( Summaries)  there is a summary of the contractions you have learned in Lessons 4 through  6.

Lesson 7

Whole-Word Lower-Sign Contractions for:  in,  enough,  be,  his,  was,  	
        were 
Part-Word Lower-Sign Contractions for:  in,  en,  be,  con,  dis,  com Introduction to Short-Form Words
7.1  Definition of Lower-Sign Contractions
In addition to the one-cell contractions already studied, there is another group of contractions known as lower signs. Combinations of dots from the middle and/or lower portion of the cell form these lower signs.  In other words, none of them contains an upper dot, (dot 1 or dot 4). It should be noted that many of the punctuation signs studied in Lessons 2 and 3 are formed in the lower part of the cell.  There are lower-sign contractions for both whole words and parts of words. Following are the lower-sign contractions that will be studied in this lesson.
Whole-Word                   Part-Word
Contraction	Meaning	Contraction	Meaning

9 	in	9	in
5	enough	5	en
2	be	2	be
8	his	3 	con
0	was	4	dis
7	were	-	com

Note that the contractions for the words  in, enough, and be are the same as the contractions for the  letters  in,  en,  and  be.

7.2   Whole-Word Lower-Sign Contractions for:  in, enough, be, his,                 was, were  
These contractions, when standing alone, represent whole words.   
      Examples:
Was the food in his backpack enough for the hike? 
,0 ! food 9 8 backpack 5 =! hike8
It may be that more sandwiches were needed.
,x may 2 t m s&wi*es 7 ne$$4
7.2.1  In Contact with Punctuation or Indicators
        Some of these contractions have the same configuration as certain marks of punctuation. To avoid confusion with punctuation, these contractions are used only when they stand alone as whole words. They cannot be in direct contact with any other letter, contraction, word, or punctuation mark, some of which may contain upper dots.

    	Whole-word lower-sign contractions may, however, be preceded by indicators, such as the capital indicator and/or font indicator (to be studied in Lesson 15). Thus, in the following sentence none of the whole-word lower-sign contractions can be used.
	    Example:
   “His history book was—or rather is—in the same place my books were.”
  ,8,his hi/ory book was.-or r is.-in !   same place my books w]e4,0
Note that the word his could have been contracted if it had been preceded only by the capital indicator, but since it is also preceded by the opening quotation mark it was spelled out. The contraction for his is not used in the word history because the lower whole-word contractions cannot be used as parts of words. The contractions for was and in may not be used because one precedes and the other follows a dash. The contraction for were may not be used because it would be in contact with the period.

Because these contractions must always stand alone, they cannot be used when next to a slash. 
          Example:
in/out       in_/\t 
7.2.2  In Hyphenated Compound Words 
       Unlike the whole-word contractions previously studied that use the upper part of the braille cell, these lower-sign contractions cannot be used to form hyphenated compound words because this would bring them into contact with a hyphen, contrary to the rule. Thus, the contraction for in cannot be used in brother-in-law nor the contraction for be in bride-to-be.
                  Example:
                            stand-in   /&-in          

7.2.3  The  en  Contraction  for  enough 
       The en contraction can be used as a whole word, only for the word  enough. When the letters en form part of an anglicized expression or a name such as  en route,  en masse, Chou En-Lai  or  Aix-en-Provence,  or when they are part of a hyphenated expression such as an  “en-shaped figure,” the contraction is not used, and the letters are spelled out.

When the whole-word contraction for enough cannot be used, other contractions (en,  ou,  gh) may be used.
        Example:    
        Enough is enough!     ,5 is 5\<6

Drill 19

Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	Was the man who carried the child in his arms a fireman?
2.	“I will be—er—in my study if you need me.”
3.	Do we have enough gas for the trip?
4.	“In-and-out, in-and-out! Can't you decide what you want?”
5.	 The savagery of the fight was revolting (in fact, three people passed out).
6.	Chou En-lai, 1898-1976, was skilled in negotiating (his speeches were  exuberant and well expressed).
7.	 That's what it was! A gray wolf hiding in the hedge.
8.	 Who did that—were you that person?
9.	 In spite of the fact that Michael was a stand-in for David, the play was a triumph.
10.	  Choose the correct answer: We was/were going in the morning.

7.3 Part-Word Lower-Sign Contractions 

7.3.1  The Contractions for:  in and en
    The same braille configurations that represent the whole words in and enough are also used to represent the letters in and en as parts of words. Use these two part-word lower-sign contractions as parts of words wherever the letters they represent occur, except when specific rules, such as the prefix and suffix rules, limit their use. Consequently, the in sign is used in instant, main, pine, minor, and Carolina. The en sign is used in enforce, often, senior, and Gene. Note that their use does not depend on whether the vowel is long or short.

	It should also be borne in mind that where the  ing contraction cannot be used because the letters occur at the beginning of the word, as in ingredient, or where the ing contraction would cause difficulty in pronunciation, as in the word lingerie, the in contraction is used. 
		   Example:	
	            ingredient   9gr$i5t1     lingerie  l9g]ie 
     Also, in the word dinghy, where the n and g are pronounced as two sounds and the  g  and  h  are pronounced as one sound, the  in  and  gh  contractions are used in preference to the  ing contraction.  ( d9<y )

7.3.2   Prefixes
 	The in sign is not used in binomial, trinomial, or trinodal, and the en sign is not used in denominator or prenatal because one of the letters of the contraction falls into a prefix, and the other letter falls into another part of the word.  
    The contraction for en is used in coenzyme and gastroenteritis where all of the letters of the contraction fall into the same syllable.
7.3.3   Compound Words
	Contractions cannot be used if they overlap the elements of a solid compound word; consequently the  en  sign is not used in  toenail  or  treenail.
7.3.4   Diphthongs  
     In words like Phoenix and subpoenaed, the en sign is not used because the e is part of the diphthong  oe  and may not be separated from the  o  to form part of a contraction. On the other hand, the contraction for in is used in easily-read words like join, point and coin even though  oi  is a diphthong.

7.3.5   Preference for:  and,  for,  of,  the, and  with Contractions 
     In words like then and Athens, the contraction for the and the letter n are used in preference to the th and en contractions because of the rule stated in Section 6.5.2, which gives preference to the contractions for and, for, of,  the, and with over any other contractions provided their use does not require more cells.

7.4  The Lower-Sign Rule  
The six whole-word lower signs learned earlier in this lesson must always stand alone. However, any number of unspaced part-word lower signs can follow one another as long as the series is in contact with a character containing an upper dot (dot 1 or dot 4). Thus, in the following example both the in and en contractions are used in the word linen because the lower signs are in contact with the letter l.  
Example:
Was it truly his, that suit of fine linen?
  ,0 x truly his1 t suit ( f9e l958

Since  9  (35)  represents both the whole word in and the letters in as part of a word, it is extremely important to correctly determine how the letters are used. For example, in the word  shut-in  the whole word in has been joined to the whole word  shut  to form a hyphenated compound word. As a whole word brailled on one line, the in contraction cannot be used since it is in contact with the hyphen. However, in the word  shut-ins  the letters  in  are simply a part of the word  ins, and the contraction is used. 
     Examples:
    shut-in               shut-ins	 
          %ut-in   %ut-9s        

When used as part of a word, the contractions for en or in may be in contact with other letters or punctuation as long as the sequence is in touch with an upper dot. 
     Example:
    It's all in vain—encourage her anyway.
 ,x's all 9 va9.-5c\rage h] 
 anyway4      

Drill 20
Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	When they were finished with the interview the clock was striking 	seven.
2.	If you don't hurry we'll be late for dinner.
3.	I worry that they don't have enough food in the house for the entire 	weekend.
4.	In the initial stages of the war all went well.
5.	“In my not-so-very-humble opinion,” the indignant man from 	Virginia proclaimed, “General Lee was indubitably the most 	outstanding general in the Civil War.”
6.	When my in-laws invaded our domain I was in a state of frenzy.
7.	Ingmar met his bride-to-be, Ingrid, at a fly-in fishing camp in Sweden.
8.	If you insist that I be frank, I will be.
9.	How few they were, yet how magnificently they defended the 	homeland!
10.	“Enough's enough!” cried the infuriated parent.
11.	Dennis is having trouble with denominators that are binomials.
12.	His ingrown toenail is giving Henri intolerable pain.
13.	You can't deny that the theater is badly in need of a thorough 	renovating.
14.	His enormous hand grasped mine in a hearty welcome.
15.	Demosthenes was a famous orator of ancient Athens.
16.	The insects descended en masse and denuded the fields.
17.	If you haven't anything in our price range we aren't interested in 	looking.
18.	I remember Aunt Inez and how she told me in her southern 	drawl, “Joy, for my biscuits you'll need the best flour and fine 	shortenin'.”
19.	Americans just weren't adequately prepared for the attack on Pearl  	Harbor and the events that followed.
20.	The senator wasn't in, but his secretary greeted us warmly.
21.	He finds the climate in Phoenix, Arizona, beneficial for his asthma.

If it is desirable to divide this lesson into two sections, the first 16 sentences in Exercise 7 may be assigned at this time as they relate only to the material studied in the unit to this point.
7.5   Part-Word Lower-Sign Contractions for:   be,  con,  dis 

7.5.1  As the First Syllable of a Word  
    	The contractions for be, con, and dis are sometimes called the “leader” contractions because they are used only when they constitute a syllable and occur at the beginning of a word or at the beginning of a line in a divided word.  Thus, these contractions are used in such words as believe, conduct, and  district. They are not used in words such as unbelievable, misconduct, or predisposed where they do not occur at the beginning of the word or at the beginning of a braille line. Nor are they used in such words as bee, belligerent, conch, and disc where other letters are included in the syllable; or in coniferous and disheveled where all the letters do not fall in the same syllable.
Although, as mentioned above, these contractions cannot be used in the middle of a word that is located all on one line, they are used when the letters of the contraction fall at the beginning of a line in a divided word. 
     Example:
               The nurse wanted to prepare the soon-to-be-discharged patient.
              ,! nurse want$ 6prep>e ! soon-to-be-
	        4*<g$ pati5t4
7.5.2  With Punctuation  
     The contractions for be, con, and dis are used when punctuation comes before them. Therefore, these contractions can be used when they constitute the first syllable in the second part of a hyphenated compound word. 
             Examples:
“Control that dog!”                                  self-contained
  ,8,3trol t dog6,0     self-3ta9$
(becoming, don't you think?)                   non-disposable
  _(2com+1 don't y      non-4posa#
  ?9k8_)

No contractions would be used in syllabicated words because they require the notational mode where no contractions are permitted. 

       Examples:
[be]hold                               Con-rad!
   ;@(be@)hold    ;,con-rad_6
When these contractions follow a slash they are no longer considered to be at the “beginning” of a word, and therefore are not used. 
         Example:
object/concur     object_/concur 
Although contrary to the Lower Sign Rule, when a word such as  self-control is divided between braille lines following the letters self, the con contraction is  used.   
           Examples:
                     self-control                          true-believer
  self-3trol     true-2liev] 
   self-                                    true-
                     control                         	    believer
   self-            true-
   3trol           2liev]                                                 
 7.5.3  The  Words  con and dis  
     Remember that the contractions for con and dis are purely part-word contractions and therefore cannot be used to represent the whole words con    (as in the expression pro and con), or the slang expression dis.
	   Examples:
  		 conned    conn$       dis       dis
                 dissing    diss+       dissed     diss$
7.6  Contraction for com  
The contraction for com is similar in use to be, con, and dis in that it can be used only at the beginning of a word or at the beginning of a line in a divided word. However, unlike be, con and dis, it need not constitute an entire syllable in order to be used. Thus, this contraction is used in words like come and comb as well as in words like command and compost.
To avoid confusion with punctuation, this contraction is never used in contact with a hyphen, dash or apostrophe—whether such punctuation comes before or after the letters. This rule applies even though an indicator may intervene between such punctuation and the letters com. 

Example:
       “Come in! Com'ere and meet the ex-committee 
                 chairwoman, Jane Reed-Comar.” 
  ,8,-e in6 ,com']e & meet ! ex-committee     	*airwoman1 ,jane ,re$-,com>4,0 
The contraction for com is not used next to a slash.  
       Example:     
            go/come    go_/come

Drill 21

Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	I was disconcerted when I learned that residents of the District of 	Columbia were denied home rule until the twentieth century.
2.	The chairman of the sub-committee on the conduct of wayward youth 	lost his self-control when the members became disorderly.
3.	“Com'ere and help me fix this flat tire,” cried the exasperated motorist.
4.	Sandy was bewitched, bothered and bewildered.
5.	Congress debated the issue pro and con for weeks.
6.	Maybe we'll send Mary with you, she is being very disobedient.
7.	Czech immigrants settled in Wisconsin.
8.	Mandy's belligerent attitude is completely incomprehensible.
9.	Credit is given Sir Francis Bacon for having originated the modern 	scientific method of thinking.
10.	As the boy lay dying on the field of battle, he gasped, “May God com-fort 	and pro-tect the Confederacy!”

7.7   Preserving the Usual Form of the Base Word
Be alert to base or root words that have more than one prefix. When words such as disturb, distinguish, or distinct take on an additional prefix, as in undisturbed, indistinguishable, and indistinct, the dis is no longer the first syllable of the word and cannot be contracted. And, to ensure easy recognition of the word, the  st  is not contracted either. 

       Example:
      distinct	 	indistinct
      4t9ct                         9dist9ct
The same applies to ingenuous, where the ing contraction cannot be used because the letters occur at the beginning of the word. When the prefix dis is added to create disingenuous the ing contraction is still not used. This preserves the original form of the base word and ensures proper pronunciation. 
   Example:
      ingenuous  	disingenuous
  9g5u\s                          49g5u\s
7.8   In Proper Names 
The contractions for be, con, dis, and com are used in names containing an apostrophe, such as O'Connell. They are also used in names starting with Mc or Mac — as long as they constitute the first capitalized syllable following  Mac or  Mc and are not the last syllable of the name. 
      Examples:
       McConner                      MacCommack                  McBe
    ,mc,3n]            ,mac,-mack          ,mc,be
      McBeman	      O'Connell	 
    ,mc,2man           ,o,'3nell   
7.9   Be,  con,  dis,  and  com  in Abbreviations  
The use of any of these four contractions, when appearing in an abbreviation or acronym,  is governed by the general rules for abbreviations and acronyms as discussed in detail in Section 13.2.1. When standing alone, these contractions must be treated as narrative words but are not contracted.
7.10  Introduction to Short-Form Words 
     In addition to contractions, braille contains abbreviated forms for many words that will be studied in succeeding lessons. They are called short-form words. Memorize the following six short-form words.
Short-form   Meaning	  Short-form   Meaning
gd	good	pd	   paid
lr	letter	qk	   quick
11	little	sd	  said 
Example:
    The letter said that good little boys and girls get quick rewards.
  ,! lr sd t gd ll boys & girls get 
 qk rew>ds4
				Drill 22 
Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	The letter, I confess, left Dad looking rather bewildered.
2.	I paid little heed when I was told that Connie and Beatrice were becoming constant companions.
3.	Disposing of this problem will not be quick and will require the combined efforts of all of us.
4.	The neighborhood park can hardly be compared with Coney Island.
5.	Betty's behavior in school was unbecoming for a child her age—maybe she'll improve next year.
6.	“The patient has come out of his coma and has improved considerably,” said the good doctor.
7.	Benedict's wife, who is the president of the Ladies Benevolent Society of St. John's Church, paid me a visit.
8.	With considerable effort she regained her self-composure and continued perusing the letter.
9.	Most of the men who man our submarines are trained at New London, Conn.
10.	Ben O'Connor, a good little guy, is my choice for the job – come what may.
11.	Constable Hemingway pointed his gun menacingly and ordered,  “Quick! Come out from be'ind that bar!”
12.	The politician's denial was disingenuous.

READING  PRACTICE

Write the following sentences in longhand.  Compare your work with the print version in Appendix A.

,*IT*AT

,8,GD MORN+1 ,9GA4 ,SAY1 ?ANKS = S5D+ ME T LR F ,VIRG9IA4 ,H[ 0 ! RE/ (! TRIP8,0
,8,OH1 LOTS ( FUN1 ,$4 ,I TOOK A LOT ( PICTURES4 ,B WE 7 S TIR$ :5 WE GOT HOME LA/ NI<T.-& ,I'M / TIR$ ? MORN+6,0
,8,DID Y VISIT ! HI/ORICAL SITES 9 ,M>YL& & ,3NECTICUT8,0
,8,NO1 X 0 A QK TRIP & WE'LL D 5 ( T :5 ,B1TRICE VISITS NEXT YE>4,0
,8,W]5'T Y GO+ ) ,3NIE NEXT YE>8,0
,8,YES1 B %E'S TAK+ A NEW JOB 9 ! ,4TRICT ( ,COLUMBIA1 S ,I DON'T ?9K %E'LL G4,0
,8,WELL1 TELL ,JO% ,I SD HELLO4 ,I'M GLAD X 0 A GD TRIP4 ,LET'S H A PICTURE- %[+ SOON4 ,Y'LL FEEL BETT] :5 Y'VE RE/$ A LL M4,0
,8,I'LL 2 SEE+ Y1 ,$4 ,I'M 9 A HURRY N[4 ,I HAV5'T PD ALL MY BILLS YET & ,JO% WANTS 8 BOOKS RETURN$ ? MORN+4,0

EXERCISE

Prepare the following Exercise for submission to the instructor. 

LESSON 7
1.	Dickens and Thackeray were the two most outstanding British  novelists of the nineteenth century.
2.	Grandpa will be in his late seventies when I graduate from college.
3.	 The doctor was insistent that he not get out of bed until well enough.
4.	 He recited Tennyson's “In Memoriam” with intense feeling.
5.	 “The enormous volcano is erupting,” enunciated the announcer.
6.	 Her prenatal exam shows that she has gastroenteritis.
7.	We laughed as she told her tale—in a rather loud, animated, but humorous vein—involving her dog.
8.	 She says she feels insecure when she rides in a twin-engine plane.
9.	 When I've saved enough, I'll buy the entire set of Dickens for my 
      grandchild.
10.	Virgil's AENEID opens with the flight of the hero from Troy.
11.	If he will take daily calisthenics for a few months his physique will be 	immensely strengthened.
12.	A wooden peg used for joining timbers is called a treenail.
13.	The renovated home was splendidly decorated in the style of the era.
14.	I think Selena's injury was self-inflicted.
15.	When Mr. Engles retired he started delivering groceries for shut-ins.
16.	Jane loved the linen suit her Mom sent her from Italy.
17.	We felt very sad when the lovely coniferous tree fell down.
18.	Benedict Arnold betrayed the United States when he surrendered West   	Point.
19.	His boss said that my brother-in-law wasn't responsible for the failure   of the company.
20.	“Which'll it be, madame, soda or ginger ale?” inquired the   
           bespectacled  waiter.
21.	Study the following antonyms: in/out, his/hers, content/dismayed, 
           nervous/composed.
 22.  His  behavior denoted that Adam was completely undismayed at the most 
         unexpected outcome.
 23.	 Our officers' meeting will be considering the new budget—coming up soon.
 24.  The lines of the pattern are very subtle and indistinct.
 25.  The denial of freedom of the press is a distinctly totalitarian phenomenon.  
 26.  I find things like trinomials and logarithms a constant enigma.
 27.  I left the dinghy on the side of the Wisconsin River and continued my journey  	on foot.
 28.  People in the town are saying that the groom-to-be has become very unhappy 	and, in fact, quite disenchanted since learning of his betrothed's flirtatious 	ways.
 29.  “You be good an' come out quick with yer hands up,” said the sheriff, “or I'm 	comin' in and git yuh.”
 30.  As a Naval ex-commander, John was a firm believer in discipline.
 31.   Inter-continental flights arrive hourly at Dulles Airport.
 32.  The auto crash left his hair disheveled and his clothing in disarray.
 33.  Roger, a wanna-be rock star, becomes angry when Penny says he can't carry a 	tune.
 34.  As the strutting cockney orator took his place on the rostrum, he began: “On 	be'alf of all decent Henglishmen I protest this insolent be'avior of the 'Ouse 	of  Commons!”
 35.  On the corner, he passed a disreputable-looking stranger, who whined, “Will 	you 'commodate me with the price of a cup of coffee, sir?”
36.  In a closely-contested race O'Connor was chosen Congressman from the 2nd  	District of Iowa.
37.  That was intended as a tribute, not a dis.
38.   When she arrived at the studio, she discovered a hastily-scribbled note that 	said, “Called out of town unexpectedly;  for the next lesson practice Mozart's 	Con.  No. 18.”
39.   The new freight rates which the Interstate Commerce Committee has 
  	 recommended are unbelievably high—but they will be paid.
40.   If Leslie remains very patient, maybe Mr. Drew will change his mind and 
        write her that letter.  
41.   Charybdis is a sinister whirlpool in Greek mythology.

 Lesson 8

Whole-Word Lower-Sign Contractions for:  to,  into,  by 
Part-Word  Lower-Sign Contractions for:  bb,  cc,  dd ,  ff,  gg,  ea 
More Short-Form Words

8.1  Contractions for:  to,  into,  by  

8.1.1  In General  
     There are three whole-word lower-sign contractions in addition to those studied in the preceding lesson. They are:  

             Contraction	   Whole Word Meaning 
                     6                                to
                   96                             into
                     0                               by
Unlike the whole-word lower-signs learned in Lesson 7  (in, enough, be, his, was, were), which must always be preceded by a space, punctuation mark or an indicator and followed by a space, the contractions for  to,  into, and by are joined to the word that follows with certain exceptions.  They cannot attach to each other and they cannot attach to the words  and,  for,  of, and  with.

The rules governing the use of these contractions prevents  by  from being read as  was,  etc.  These contractions are never used as parts of words. 
   Examples:
   Toby was to go by the bank at noon in order 
          to put the deed into the  safe. 
   ,toby 0 6g 0! bank at noon 9 ord]
      6put ! de$ 96! safe4
           The bylaws are written by and for the people.
           ,! bylaws >e writt5 by &=! p4
8.l.2  With  Indicators  
     Use these contractions both before and after some indicators such as capital indicators and emphasis indicators (to be studied later). To, into and by are NEVER attached to notational words.
        Example:
         TWO GAMES TO GO, REDS WIN 6 TO 0!                  
   ,,;two games 6g1 r$s w9 #6 to #0_6,'
Note the use of the capitalized-phrase format in this sentence. Also note that the word  “to”  cannot attach to the numeric indicator before the 0 and the punctuation indicator is required before the 6. 

8.1.3  With  Punctuation 
     Use the contractions for to, into, and by when they come after punctuation such as an opening quotation mark, opening parenthesis, a bracket, or a dash. But, they are not used when they come before punctuation marks.  
          Examples:
       to/from    to_/from	 
      “By the way, did you see Helen go by?”
  ,8,0! way1 did y see ,Hel5 g by8,0
       (To Sam, it's a trip into “paradise.”)
  _(,6,sam1 x's a trip 9to 
    ,8p>adise4,0_)
Note that when the contraction for into cannot be used, the contraction for    in is used.
Because the contractions for to, into, and by cannot be used when they come before punctuation, they cannot be used at the beginning or in the middle of a hyphenated compound word or expression. And, since these contractions must be connected to something following them, they cannot be used for the last part of a compound word. 
        Examples:
            by-product                        bride-to-be     
    by-product            bride-to-be
           lay-by                               My How-To Book  
           lay-by                       ,my ,how-,to ,book
8.1.4   With  Other  Contractions
      These contractions are joined to words that start with a part-word contraction.  
      They are also joined to whole-word contractions. 
            Example:
            Tomato juice was poured by Sharon into every cup.
    ,tomato juice 0 p\r$ 0,%>on 96e cup4
When to, into, or by comes before one of the six whole-word lower-signs (in, enough, be, his, was, were), the contraction for to, into, or by is used, but the following word cannot be fully contracted into a single lower cell, although contractions can be used within these words.
      Example:
  “To be or not to be,”  Erik recited as he went into his classroom.
 ,8,6be or n 6be1,0 ,]ik recit$ z he      w5t 96his classroom4
Although the part-word contractions be, con, dis, and com are used only at the beginning of a word or at the beginning of a line in a divided word, this does not prevent them from being preceded by the contractions for to, into, or by. 
       Example:
      Liz went by commuter train to Disraeli Street.
   ,liz w5t 0-mut] tra9 6,4raeli    ,/reet4 
To, into, and by may not be contracted and joined to each other.  
      Example:   
             I'll stop by to say hello.
  ,I'll /op by 6say hello4
     Note that  by  cannot attach to the word   to.

8.1.5  As Proper Names
         Do not use the contractions for to, into, or by when the letters of these words comprise a proper name or a part of one. 
         	    Example:
                  Toby To's dad came from China. 
  	  ,toby ,to's dad came f ,*9a4

                                                  Drill 23 
Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	Innocent bystanders at the scene of a crime may be unwilling to testify.
2.	Jason will have to have his credentials by the end of the week.
3.	He gets into more trouble than most little boys.
4.	Mr. Good will drop by the office to make inquiries concerning the new 	filing system.
5.	By this evening I hope to complete the study.
6.	From 1993 to 1997, Toby studied aerodynamics.
7.	Stephen made a quick trip from Chicago to Reno by way of St. Louis.
8.	JOHN BY GOES TO CANADA is a good Canadian history book.
9.	“By the way, will you be able to meet me at nine in the morning?” Mr. 
	    Byrd asked his brother-in-law.
10.	He was greeted by “Hello, you old so-and-so!” as he entered the room.
11.	It is clear (to me, anyway) that the enterprise will be a complete failure.
12.	His book, in my opinion, is very poorly written—to be perfectly frank.
13.	She complained bitterly:  “To've been prepared might've prevented the 	disaster.”
14.	He took his daughter into his study and gave her a stern lecture.
15.	By being as inconspicuous as possible, he was able to enter the arena 	unobserved.
16.	You can hardly expect Pat to consent to moving in with her in-laws.
17.	A rise in the cost of living is an inevitable by-product of war.
18.	Automobiles began to be popular toward the end of the second decade 	of the twentieth century.
19.	Bit by bit, he was winning the respect of the well-to-do merchant.
20.	Toshi hurriedly paid for her ticket but she still missed her train—by 	just seconds.
21.	His letter said that by May 1 he will have completed his basic training.
22.	TO HAVE AND TO HOLD is a novel depicting early colonial life.
23.	The job opening you asked me to look into seems to be very attractive.
24.	On his way to and from school he likes to stop and talk with the little 	old gentleman.
25.	With continued effort he will attain his goal by and by.
26.	Tomas stopped by to remind me of our dinner date.
If it is desirable to divide this lesson into two sections, the first 23 sentences in Exercise 8, beginning on page 96,  may be assigned at this time, as they relate only to the material studied in the unit to this point.

8.2  The Double-Letter Signs and  the  ea  Sign  
                      Contraction       Meaning  
                               2	bb			
                               3	cc
                               4	dd
                               6	ff
                               7	gg
                          1	ea

8.2.1  Used Only Within Words
     Note that, in addition to the meanings given above, each of these characters is also used to represent some other contraction or punctuation. Some represent whole words, others act as contractions at the beginning of words, and some appear at the end of words as punctuation. To prevent confusion, a rule has been adopted that when these characters are used to represent the double-letter signs or the ea sign, they are used only between letters and/or contractions within a word. For that reason they are sometimes called the “sandwich contractions.”   
             Examples: 
            Bobby	         occupy	  added	 puffy	        eggs        tease    
         ,bo2y        o3upy         a4$        pu6y       e7s      t1se
Consequently, these contractions cannot be used at the beginning or the end of a word. Nor can they be used in contact with punctuation or indicators. 
    Examples:
       easy           tea        sheriff's              SeaCliff                     ebb-tide
     easy  tea    %]iff's  ,sea,cliff  ebb-tide
8.2.2  Preserving the Usual form of a Base Word Beginning with  ea 
     When a word beginning with ea is preceded by a prefix or another word resulting in the formation of a different word, the ea contraction is not used because it would change the usual braille form of the base word. Thus, the ea contraction is not used in  uneasy,  anteater, or  northeast because it would not be used in  easy,  eater, or  east.

8.2.3  Base Word and a Prefix 
     Many words that originally were formed from a base or root plus a prefix have become so common that most dictionaries no longer recognize the prefix. In easily recognized words such as abbreviate, accept, accent,  address,  addict,  affect,  aggrieved, and  disease, the old prefix is ignored and the ea or double letter contractions are used.
           Examples:
               address   a4ress          affect  a6ect	   disease  41se
As with other contractions, where the prefix is noted as such in the dictionary and the use of an overlapping contraction would clearly have an adverse affect on pronunciation, the contraction is not used. 
     Examples:
           preamble                     readjust                     subbase
          pream#                  readju/             subbase
8.2.4  Base Word and a Suffix  
     When a word ends with the letters  bb,  cc,  dd,  ff,  gg, or ea, the contractions cannot be used. However, if such a word is followed by a suffix, the contractions are used. For example, although these contractions may not be used in stiff,  puff, or ebb, they are used in  stiffly,  puffed, and  ebbing.
These contractions are also used when the final consonant of a word is doubled before adding suffixes such as ed, en, er, and ing because they are “sandwiched” in between other letters and the use of the contraction does not overlap the letters of a base word and its suffix. 
    Examples:
       rubbing              padded	             hidden	           slugger
  ru2+     pa4$     hi45    slu7]
However, where a contraction would overlap the letters of a root/base word and a suffix, the contraction cannot be used. 
     Examples:
          permeable              mileage	               subbase
   p]mea#    mileage   oleag9\s 
EXCEPTION: When the suffixes ate, an, or al are added to a base/root word ending in e, the ea contraction is used.
    Examples:
         permeate               delineate                 venereal
         p]m1te            del91te           v5]1l       
         European                 subterranean
               ,europ1n            subt]ran1n
Transcribers should take care to look up words that they are not sure of, for some can be deceptive. For example, lineage (lin/e/age), referring to ancestry, appears to have the suffix age. But this is not the case as the origin of lineage is the Old French word lignage. Because this is a base word that has no suffix, the ea contraction is used. When the word linage 
is spelled lineage  (line/age) and refers to the alignment of lines on a page, age is a suffix and the ea contraction is not used.
8.2.5   Solid Compound Words
     Although these contractions are not used in tea, sea, or egg, they are used in the compound words teacup, seashore, and egghead. If, however, the letters comprising any of these contractions fall partly into one component of a compound word and partly into the other, the contraction is not used.   
          Examples:
      pineapple              dumbbell	            headdress             poleax
  p9eapple  dumbbell  h1ddress  poleax
 
8.2.6  Causing Difficulty in Pronunciation  
    These contractions are not used if their use would cause difficulty in the recognition or the pronunciation of the word by combining the letters of a dieresis (two adjacent vowels pronounced separately).   
              Example:
            genealogy   g5ealogy      [not]      g51logy	

8.2.7  In Trigraphs and Diphthongs  
     In the trigraph eau the ea sign is used because both letters of the contraction fall within the same syllable. 
	      Examples:  
            tableau   tabl1u  	  beau   b1u   bureau  bur1u
When two adjacent vowels combine to create one sound (a diphthong), as in paean (pae/an), they must not be separated by the use of a contraction, so it is brailled as:  paean 

8.2.8 Contraction Preferences 
	The contractions for bb, cc, dd, ff, gg, and ea are the least favored of all one-cell contractions because syllable division usually occurs between double consonants. By using other contractions, proper pronunciation is more likely to be preserved. When a choice must be made between contractions, any other one-cell contraction is preferred over them.
     Examples:
    w(ed)d(ing)     	 [not]   we(dd)ing             (of)fice  	 	[not]   o(ff)ice
    m(ed)dle        	 [not]   me(dd)le               ef(for)t   	 	[not]   e(ff)ort
    sac(ch)(ar)(in)e	 [not]   sa(cc)h(ar)(in)e     (the)at(ter  		[not]   (th)(ea)t(er)
    le(ar)n             	 [not]   l(ea)rn                   bub(ble) 	  [not]   bu(bb)le
    be(ar)              	 [not]   b(ea)r                    me(and)(er)	[not]   m(ea)nd(er)

8.3  More Short-Form Words
    Following are six more short-form words to be memorized.  If the word to, into, or by falls before a word that has a short form, the contraction is used and joined to the short-form word.
	   
       Short-                             Short-                             
       form       Meaning           form       Meaning           
        ab            about              (be)l       below          
        abv          above              f(st)      first
        (be)c       because            grt        great

Example:
Because of the rains, the water above the falls was swift.  Below the      falls it fell into first a deep pool and then rushed about the great rocks.

,2c (! ra9s1 ! wat] abv ! falls 0   swift4 ,2l ! falls x fell 96f/ a deep pool & !n ru%$ ab ! grt rocks4

Drill 24
Practice brailling the following words and sentences. In the word section, leave three spaces between words and do not divide words between lines.  In the numbered section, divide words according to the NUBS rules.

  rubber    effective   rabble   scaffold   adds   coffee   jiggle   hobbled
  zealot   meander   pebble   create   middle   succotash   meddle   Mecca
  idea   ideal   southeast   react   bleach   bleed   dabble   daddy

1.   When he saw the cop put his finger on the trigger he gave up the  	struggle.
2.   Succor was not slow in arriving for the disaster sufferers; in fact it  	was  amazingly quick.
3.   “You are a very good little girl, Effie,” said Aunt Maggie.
4.   You may think it odd, but I will not eat cabbage in any form.
5.   “I kin go out with a diff’rent girl every night,” said the sheriff's son.
6.			She was a stiff-necked old aristocrat with an impressive genealogy who 	refused to mingle with the rabble. 
7.			The leaders of the plot will be tried for treason.
8.			Write a letter saying, first of all, that we are committed and will not tolerate 	being treated like riffraff.
9.			Hiding below the stairs, Mr. Eaton was puffing contentedly on a huge cigar.
10.	Eddie paid fifteen hundred dollars for his first car and he is proud as a     	peacock.

11.	For dinner we served the farmhands meatloaf, potatoes and gravy, 	eggplant, carrot and cabbage salad, bread, coffee, peaches and cream, 	and white cake topped with fluffy marshmallow frosting.
12.	 Her wedding bouquet was made of spirea and baby's breath.
13.	 In 1933,  Leander and his boys were arrested as the result of a brawl  	 near a St. Louis speakeasy.
14.	 The house was deserted and an uneaten meal was still spread on the table.
15.	 My cousin was taken prisoner by the Chinese Communists in the Korean 	  	 War.
16.	I was agreeably surprised by the fine delivery of the valedictory speech, 	which was given at the baccalaureate exercises.
17.	Mr. Webb loves his old Rambler because it handles so well and he still 	gets great gas mileage, but above all, he just loves the way it looks.
18.	He left his Chevrolet at the garage because he needed to have the 	carburetor readjusted and the wheels realigned.
19.	I believe that the seller will accept considerably less than the price he 	quoted.
20.	President Truman made monkeys out of the political wiseacres who were 	predicting a Republican victory in 1948.
21.	Tina's new beau is picking her up about eight and they are going to the 	theater.
22.	The streets were littered with rubble following the storm.
23.	It took a tremendous effort for Uncle Tobias to hobble up the steps 	because he is disabled by arthritis.
24.	When the calisthenics were finished, the teacher gathered up the 	dumbbells and Indian clubs.
25.	The doctor padded the area above and below the injury.
26.	Luci avoided the accident by quick thinking.

Reading Practice

Write the following sentences in longhand. Compare your work with the print version in Appendix A.

 ,SU3ESS ,/ORY
 
,GREG'S PA/ 9CLUD$ P$DL+ PAP]S1 CL]K+ AT ! TOBA3O %OP & SL++ HAMBURG]S AT A FA/-FOOD SPOT4 ,:5 HE 0 (F]$ A JOB Z A COOK AT ! UP-SCALE ,TRU6LES ,RE/AURANT
HE A3EPT$1 EV5 ?\< HE'D N HE>D ( DI%ES L /U6$ E7PLANT OR CA2AGE BRAIS$ 9 /OCK4
,HE LEFT ! F/ ORD] ( FRI$ MU%ROOMS & ZUC*9I _(AN HORS D'OEUVRE T 0 A H\SE SPECIAL_) 9 ! DEEP FRY] = TW5TY M9UTES4 ,! IRATE CU/OM] S5T ! BLACK5$1 UNAPPETIZ+ DI% BACK 6! KIT*54
,$I? _(:O PREF]R$ 6BE CALL$ ,$DIE_)1 ! BU2LY WAITRESS1 J GI7L$ & TOLD ,GREG N 6WORRY4 ,:5 %E F/ />T$ WAIT+ TA#S %E PUT SAC*>9E 9 ! SUG> B[L1 MISTOOK IC$ TEA = 
LEMONADE1 & DROPP$ A DI% ( HOT P1* COB#R ) ICE CR1M 96A CU/OM]'S LAP4
,AT LA/ ! H1D *EF1 ,PI]RE1 AGRE$ 6TAKE ,GREG ASIDE = TWO H\RS E WEEK = COOK+ LESSONS4 ,N[1 A YE> LAT]1 P -E F F> & WIDE 65JOY ! DELICACY (! H\SE1 ,8,AUB]G9E ,GRE7ORY4,0

EXERCISE

Prepare the following Exercise for submission to the instructor. Correspondence students: Submit the entire Exercise at one time and ignore the asterisks between sentences  #23  and  #24.

LESSON 8
1.	By curtailing his expenses sharply, he was able to save enough to go to 	college.
2.	It will take a good four hours to go from Baltimore to Los Angeles by jet.
3.	His research on this project will continue into the next decade.
4.	“What do you expect by ‘due process of law’?” asked the judge sternly.
5.	From the radio issued the voice of a crooner pouring his heart and soul 	into “To Each His Own.”
6.	The story (to be continued in the next issue) is filled with horror and 	suspense.
7.	The problems of space travel—to a little boy this is a fascinating subject— 	were discussed at length in Bob To's essay.
8.	“Don't make me devote the whole evenin' to 'rithmetic,” cried Benny.
9.	It will be to his advantage to study chemistry in high school, since he 	
       is planning to be a doctor.
10.	Luke is going to compete in the track meet as a discus thrower.
11.	A quick look into the bylaws showed that they were amended to permit   	voting by proxy.
12.	He was enthralled by A TRIP TO THE MOON by Jules Verne.
13.	The strikers refused to let anybody go into or out of the plant.
14.	When I came to the nurse was there.
15.	He sat on the edge of the raft, lazily swinging his legs to and fro.
16.	His analysis is, by and large, the most convincing I have heard.
17.	Apparently the bill was paid, but the matter will be looked into.
18.	We are determined to recover our property by hook or by crook.
19.	“What will this all come to?” she wailed.
20.	By constantly reminding us to “overcome,” Martin Luther King gave us 	hope and pride.
21.	“The express letter was to have arrived by 12 noon,” said Christopher.
22.	Sam put his books into his briefcase.
23.   Don't make a “to-do” over her present; I am sure Mom will like it.
      *   *   *   *   *   
24.   The alchemists of the Middle Ages were preoccupied with trying to change the 	baser metals into gold.
25.  By about the first of July, he says he will be ready to open his office  in 	that well-to-do neighborhood and we will get paid what he owes us.
26.  A determined juror kept doggedly reasserting his belief that the 	accused was innocent.
27.  The motto that Cyril lives by is “Early to bed, early to rise, makes a 	man healthy, wealthy and wise.”
28.  The sheriff then placed handcuffs on the ruffians and led them off 	to jail.
29.  For little Bobby's breakfast Pearl was preparing bacon and eggs.
30.  Following the meeting of the Ways and Means Committee, the 	affable hostess served tea and very good muffins.
31.  It's the bailiff's duty to keep order in the courtroom.
32.  The theater on Byron Street is featuring a great movie this evening.
33.  It has been a custom in our household to serve eggnog during the 	Christmas season.
34.  The widespread use of penicillin and other antibiotics considerably 	reduced the danger from certain diseases.
35.  Have a good trip, and above all, stay below the speed limit.
36.  Eddie's compass showed that we were headed southeast.
37.  The Charge of the Light Brigade took place during the Crimean War.

38.  The Bible says that  “In the beginning God created the heaven and 	the earth.”
39.  His entire demeanor was permeated with an air of insufferable 	conceit.
40.  The letter said that at last David was to realize his dream of 	becoming 	the proprietor of a small acreage.
41.  Brown sugar on oatmeal or Cream of Wheat provides quick energy on a 	cold morning.
42.  The handbill said: “We trace any genealogy and guarantee to 	provide you with an imposing lineage.”
43.  Democracy is rule “of, by, and for the people.”
44.  His address to the affiliate accentuated his eccentricities.
45.  When I make Mom's muffins I readjust the spices to make them tastier 	and add pineapple.
46.  Because the weather was fair,  the eastern sky was lighted by the soft  rays of a roseate dawn.
47.  The scene in the humble cottage presented a tableau of heart-warming 	domestic bliss and harmony.
48.  The funeral sermon was full of paeans of praise for the deceased leader.
49.  “Be nice to Mr. Smith. We can't afford to dis our best customer.”

Lesson 9

Initial-Letter Contractions;  More Short-Form Words 

9.1  In General  
	Like the contraction for into, the contractions about to be studied are all two-cell configurations. Initial-letter contractions are formed by preceding the initial letter or initial contraction of the word by dot 5, dots 45, or dots 456. For instance, the letter d standing alone is the word do, but when d is immediately preceded by dot 5 the word becomes day—which can be used for the whole word day or as part of the word yesterday.

Dot 5		Dots 45		Dots 456
---------                          	 ---------                      	cannot        	_c
day              	"d      	----------                            	 ---------
ever       	"e       	----------                            	----------
father     	f            	----------		----------
here              	"h	---------- 		had           	_h   
know            	"k	----------		----------
lord            	"l	----------		----------
mother       	"m  	----------                             many      	_m
name         	"n	---------- 		----------
one               	"o 	----------		----------
part            	"p	----------  		----------
question      	"q	----------		----------
right           	"r	----------		----------
some           	"s  	----------		spirit         	_s
time           	"t	----------		----------
under          	"u      	upon            ^u	----------
work           	"w	word           ^w	world       	_w
young          	"y	----------		----------
character      	"*	----------		----------
through        	"?	those           ^?	----------
where           	":	whose         ^:	----------
ought           	"\	----------		----------
there            	"!	these           ^!	their        	_!
9.1.1  Original Pronunciation Must Be Maintained 
	In general, initial-letter contractions are used both as whole words and as parts of words when they retain their original sound. Thus initial-letter contractions are used in the following examples:
ye(st)(er)(day)	(ever)y(where)	cl(ever)	s(ever)al
gr(and)(father)	ad(here)s	un(know)n	l(and)(lord)
s(mother)(ed)	re(name)d	(question)naire	b(right)
(time)r	m(ar)i(time)	(th)(under)	(work)(ing)
(young)(st)(er)	(there)by	(character)i(st)ic	(through)(ou)t
(where)(upon)	(ought)n't	(for)e(word)	(had)n't
(here)'ll	(spirit)ual	(under)(world)	(their)s
(part)y	(wh)ole(some)	(some)(time)	G(er)(many)
As long as the original sound of the word is maintained, initial-letter contractions are used in proper names, as parts of hyphenated compound expressions, and in dialect words containing an apostrophe. 
      Examples:
        Doubleday's  Happy-Times  Child  Care
            ,d\#"d's ,happy-,"ts ,* ,c>e
        G'day, m'lord
            ,g'"d1 m'"l
9.1.2 When Original Pronunciation Is Lost   
Do not use these contractions in words where the sound of the original word is no longer present.  
  Do not use  ever in  evert,  severe,  or fever. 
  Do not use  here  in  heresy.
  Do not use  time  in  centime  or  centimeter. 
  Do not use  under  in  launder  or  flounder.
  Do not use  there  in  ethereal.
  Do not use  word  in  sword.
  Do not use  these  in  theses.
  Do not use  some  in  chromosome  or  gasometer.
  Do not use  had  in  hadji  or shadow.
9.2  Exceptions to the General Rule  
9.2.1  Know  
	Even though the original sound is not maintained, the contraction for know is used in knowledgeable and acknowledge and their derivatives.
9.2.2  Ought
     The contraction for ought is used whether the word is pronounced awt as in bought, or out as in doughty. It is also used in drought whether pronounced drout or drouth. However, the contraction should not be used in Houghton when the letter combination is pronounced like a long o, as in Houghton Mifflin or Houghton, Michigan.
9.2.3  One 
	 In most cases the contraction for one is used when o and n are in the same syllable, even though the combination does not have the sound of one. Thus, the contraction is used in words like gone, phone, honest, money, and monetary.
The one contraction is not used when n begins a new syllable. Consequently, it is not used in words like pho/net/ic, pi/o/neer, colo/nel, cor/o/net, or a/nem/o/ne. And, as with all contractions, it cannot be used when part of the letters of the contraction fall into the base word and part into a suffix, as in commoner, commonest, baronet, and luncheonette.
9.2.4  Some 
	The contraction for some is used only where the letters it represents retain their original sound and the contraction forms a complete syllable in the base word. For example, this contraction is used in handsome, handsomer, and handsomest, because it retains the sound of some and it also constitutes a complete syllable in the base word handsome. The contraction for some cannot be used in words like blossomed and ransomed, because the syllable some does not appear in the base words blossom and ransom. In the word som/er/sault, the contraction for some is not used because the syllable division comes between the m and the e, and therefore, some is not a complete syllable in the base word.
9.2.5  Part
	 Unless other rules prohibit, the contraction for part is used whether it retains the original sound or not, as in particular, Spartan, and partial. Like all contractions, initial-letter contractions cannot be used if they would overlap a prefix and a base/root word. Therefore, the contraction for part cannot be used in words where par is a prefix, as in partake, partook, and parterre.
Drill 25
     Practice by brailling the following words and sentences. In the word section, leave three spaces between words and do not divide words between lines. In the numbered section, divide words as usual.
     ransom     ransomed     blossom     blossomed     handsome     handsomer lonesome     lonesomest     party     partook     partial     parterre    common     commoner     commonest     know     knowledge    acknowledge     ought    brought    drought    Houghton    honest    gone    honey     alone    abalone    phonetics    pioneer
1.	Great Scott! You ought to know you cannot remain here forever without work or money.
2.	Quick! Write the name and address on the letter because I'm late.
3.	We haven't paid them yet because there can be no question of our right to insist upon the work being done promptly under the terms of the contract.
4.	We were rather surprised to learn that many of our neighborhood boys had taken part in the street riots and that some had been named as instigators. 
5.	In these days of supersonic speed one can travel to any part of the world in little or no time at all.
6.	 To those who have character and a spirit of adventure the Navy is very appealing.
7.   The young couple is about to purchase their first home with the help of their    	families, who both have above average incomes.
8.	Wordsworth referred to the skylark as the “Ethereal Minstrel, pilgrim of the 	sky.” 
9.	The mothers and fathers first partook of a light lunch of biscuits and honey 	and tea and then went out onto the veranda and watched the youngsters 	turning somersaults and cartwheels.
10. Germany invaded Poland in September, 1939, whereupon the British, 	whose word had been pledged, proclaimed a state of war.
11.  “Surely,  m'lord,  we can't seat the good Duchess below the salt!” said the 	pompous butler.
9.3  Preference for One-Cell Contractions  
Unless space can be saved, a one-cell contraction or two one-cell contractions are usually preferred over a two-cell contraction. Examples:
    (st)on(ed)        [not]     (st)(one)d	adh(er)(er)	  [not]  	ad(here)r
    adh(er)(ed)      [not]     ad(here)d	coh(er)(en)t	  [not]     co(here)nt
    prison(er)        [not]     pris(one)r	(com)pon(en)t   [not]     (com)p(one)nt
    ha(dd)ock        [not]     (had)dock	P(ar)(the)non	  [not]     (Part)h(en)on
    on(er)(ou)s      [not]     (one)r(ou)s

EXCEPTIONS:
Apartheid. The two-cell contraction for part is used in apartheid to indicate proper  pronunciation.    a"pheid		
Haddock.  The dd contraction is preferred over the had contraction in haddock. 
    ha4ock       
9.4  Digraphs  
Do not use a contraction if its use would disturb the pronunciation of a digraph (when two letters are pronounced as one sound). 
         Examples:
          atmosph(er)e   [not]   atmosp(here)	    Boone   [not]      Bo(one)

9.5  Choosing Between Consecutive Contractions  
Where a choice must be made between two consecutive contractions, preference is given to the contraction that more nearly indicates correct pronunciation.
       Examples:
   (wh)(er)(ever)	   [not]    	 (where)v(er)
   (wh)(er)e'(er)      [not]	 (where)'(er)
   di(spirit)(ed)	  [not] 	 (dis)pirit(ed) 
   mu(st)h	  [not]	 mus(th)

9.6  Proper Names
Care should be taken when transcribing proper names. Initial-letter contractions should be used in proper names only when the transcriber is certain of the pronunciation. If the proper pronunciation cannot be determined, these contractions should not be used.  
Use many in Germany	Do not use had in Hades
Use part in Spartan	Do not use time in Mortimer
Use word in Wordsworth	Do not use ought in Houghton
Use lord in Gaylord	Do not use one in Hermione
Use right in Brighton	Do not use some in Somerset

9.7  More Short-Form Words  
Following are six more short-form words to be memorized.
Short-	                          Short-	
form	Meaning	   form	  __Meaning        	
ac	according	  (ch)n	  children 		
alw	always	  o'c	  o'clock   
brl	braille	  p(er)h         perhaps				                         
		
    Example:
According to Dad, good children who read braille always go to bed at nine o'clock−− perhaps later on week-ends.

   ,ac 6,dad1 gd *n :o r1d brl alw g
   6b$ at n9e o'c.-p}h lat] on week-
   5ds4
Drill 26
     Practice by brailling the following words and sentences. In the word section, leave three spaces between words and do not divide words between lines. In the numbered section, divide words according to the rules outlined in Sections 2.4.1 and 2.4.2.1.

     stone   stoned   stoning   phone   phoned   coherent   sphere    heretic  atmosphere   hemisphere  heresy   adhered   adhere   under   thunder   launder   name    named   enamel   Germany   fright   right-handed   Brighton    Mortimer     centimeter     Hades     hadji
1.	Beverly comforted her small brother by saying, “Don't be dispirited. Mother said in her letter that she and Father will take us fishing one day soon.”
2.	“ Upon my word! How can you ever forget the words of  ‘ The Lord's Prayer’ ? ” Grandmother scolded young Gaylord.
3.	According to our teacher, everyone ought to take some time each day for   reading because to read is to know.
4.	We hope that the party and the braille book of world maps will be a big surprise for Grandfather, whose birthday we will celebrate at two o'clock next Friday.
5.	Ever since he came into money, he thought he'd be treated like a king every day wherever he went.
6.	The characteristics of the adult are inherent in the chromosomes of the embryo.
7.	Through the untimely death of the doughty captain the entire ship was plunged into an atmosphere of gloom.
8.	The professor reluctantly acknowledges that perhaps those students who cannot make a good grade need more time to complete their theses, but questions their right to protest.
9.	Unquestionably, the onerous task of participating in the ceremonies is too burdensome for me to assume.  
10.  Eight-year-old Thaddeus began his Mother's Day poem with:  “Where'er I   wander, where'er I roam, I sit there and ponder on Mother and home.” 
11.  Daniel Boone worked hard to erect a fort at Boonesboro.
12.  He is the handsomest little boy in the class and therefore he is always 	teased  and chased by the little girls.
13.  The housemother admonished the girls and told them severely that she 	was not about to serve dessert until the finnan haddie had been eaten.
14.  His feverish dreams were haunted by these shadowy figures of 	children from out of his past.
15.  To children the arrival of Santa Claus is pure delight.

                                                 Reading Practice
  Write the following sentences in longhand. Compare your work with the print 
   version in Appendix A.

                                                       ,RU/Y                  

,"M (T5 TELLS U (! "Y P]SON :O PLAY$ A L>GE "P 9 ! BUILD+ ( H] "* Z A *4 ,8 "N 0 ,GAY"L ,"EETT1 B "EY"O US$ 8 NICK"N1 ,RU/Y1 2C ( 8 R$ HAIR4 ,HE 0 AB T5 YE>S OLD] ?AN %E1 GO+ 6COLLEGE & /UDY+ 6BE A DOCTOR4 ,HE 0 N A _WLY FELL[ !N1 B B"R &( F9E "* )A DEEP 2LIEF 9 ALL ?+S _SUAL4
,MY GR&"F 0 A DOCTOR & ,RU/Y VISIT$ FREQU5TLY1 RID+ \ ) GR&"F 9 ! BU7Y 6VISIT ! SICK 9 ! NEI<BORHOOD1 HOP+ 6LE>N ! M PRACTICAL ASPECTS ( M$IC9E4 ,"S"TS MY "M GOT 6TAKE "P 9 ^! SOJ\RNS 6\TLY+ F>MS4 ,%E TOLD U ( H[ %E'D PLAY )! DOGS 9 ! Y>D OR LOOK 9 ! B>N ": "! 7 (T5 LL KITT5S SLEEP+ 9 ! HAY1 :ILE GR&"F & ,RU/Y DELIV]$ A BABY1 SET A BROK5 B"O1 OR TR1T$ A * )! CR\P4
,2C ( 8 w>M SMILE & HELP+ H&1 ,RU/Y 0 ALW WELCOME :]"E HE W5T4 ,:5 HE GRADUAT$ F M$ICAL S*OOL & GOT A PO/+ AT A HOSPITAL _M MILES AWAY 9 ,SOM]SET HE R>ELY _H "T 6VISIT4 ,B "M N"E =GOT ! "Y MAN :O1 _M YE>S LAT]1 WON ! ,NOBEL ,PRIZE = M$IC9E4

EXERCISE
             Prepare the following Exercise for submission to the instructor.
 LESSON  9
1.	Yesterday, at eight o'clock, Mortimer started to work on his first part-	time job for his father-in-law.
2.	The name of Lord Nelson, who defeated the French fleet at Trafalgar, is 	revered by the British people.
3.	Some of the questions in the questionnaire had to be answered “yes” or 	“no”.
4.	To say that wherever he went he was under the close scrutiny of the 	police is not quite right.
5.	The youngsters are planning a big surprise for their father for Father's    	Day.
6.	Though lonesome and frightened, the young lad was none the worse for 	the night spent in the woods.
7.	“One has to spend according to one's income.  —  You cannot go on   	forever spending more money than you earn”, said Aunt Hedda, always 	giving advice.
8.	Here and there the sun peeped through the clouds, creating little shadows.
9.	I don't know whether or not I want to go to Germany, as I don't 	understand a word of the language.
10.	“How many guests do you expect at the party?” asked the spirited young 	man.
11.	One of the outstanding characters in the play is a typical man of the world 	who reads braille.
12.	“These are the times that try men's souls”,  wrote Tom Paine.
13.	Those whose houses are made of glass ought not to throw stones.
14.	Many good fairy tales start with the words “Once upon a time”.
15.	Rebecca's letter said that several cases of typhoid fever were reported in 	the flooded area.

16.	It has been said that one might move the world with a lever if he had 	something to rest it upon.
17.	He continued to adhere to his beliefs even though he was about to be 	condemned as a heretic.
18.	Those of us whose lives are spent in the Western Hemisphere know little 	of life in the Orient.
19.	Margaret Thatcher was the acknowledged leader of the British 	Conservative Party, and in her time was one of the most commanding 	women in the world.
20.	Sarah was unable to smother a yawn as James continued to recite the 	boring particulars of his journey.
21.	To this day the name of Daniel Boone is familiar to every Kentuckian.
22.	Mrs. Hadley was impressed with the beauty of the Parthenon.
23.	Chelsea loved Paris where she got great buys, including a miniature 	sword for which she paid only a few centimes.
24.	Sir Francis Drake began his maritime career by plundering Spanish 	galleons.
25.	Because money laundering is illegal it is always done in secret.
26.	Many doctoral theses involve hard and painstaking work.
27.	The old abandoned enamelworks is being leased for a new factory.
28.	The copyright for this book is owned by Houghton Mifflin Co.
29.	PARADISE LOST by John Milton tells of Lucifer's fall from ethereal 	splendor to the underworld of Hades.
30.	Perhaps I will buy a new stove because my old-time gas range is not 	equipped with a timer.
31.	My grandmother had saved enough coupons for a handsome new set of 	luggage.
32.	Throughout the nineteen thirties, known as the drought years, many 	farmers were hard-pressed for money and lost their farms.
33.	John Paul Jones was one of the early pioneers of the American Navy.
34.	Abraham Lincoln was known by the nickname “Honest Abe”.

35.	Whereas Colonel Doubleday cherished the family heirlooms even 	though they had no monetary value, his wife regarded them with 	disdain.
36.	Just above Glasgow is one of the handsomest villas in Scotland, 	which has been purchased by the baronet.
37.	Spring had arrived early, and the lovely anemones had blossomed 	in the nearby woods.
38.	One's hereditary characteristics are determined by his chromosomes.
39.	His lordship, a real character, partook generously of the sparkling 	beverage and fell into a deep reverie.
40.	The response from the prisoner of war to the chaplain's words 	of solace was incoherent.
41.	Everett was too dispirited to participate in the holiday festivities.
42.	OF HUMAN BONDAGE was one of  W. Somerset Maugham's earliest 	successes.
43.	Wherever he goes he orders haddock or swordfish.
44.	Quick, duck down here below the wall so mother cannot find us.
45.	His gift to the children is a little below average as he is not as 	prosperous now as he has been heretofore.
46.	“Going! Going! Gone!” shouted the young seller of the valuable mother-	of-pearl brooch.

Lesson 10

Final-Letter Contractions, More Short-Form  Words

10.1  Final-Letter Contractions
10.1.1  In General
	Final-letter contractions are two-cell contractions that are formed by preceding the final letter of common letter combinations by dots 46, dots 56, or dot 6.  The following is a complete list of these contractions. Note that in each column the contractions are listed alphabetically using the last letter of the letter grouping.

Dots 46                      Dots 56                        Dot 6
-ound       .d            --------	---------
-ance        .e  	 -ence       ;e	---------
---------       	 -ong        ;g	   ---------	 
---------	 -ful          ;l	           ---------
-sion        .n	 -tion        ;n	-ation      ,n
-less         .s	 -ness       ;s 	---------
-ount        .t   	 -ment      ;t                ---------
	 -ity          ;y	 	-ally        ,y	 
 To avoid confusion with other symbols or indicators, final-letter contractions are used only in the middle or at the end of a word or name.  
(ar)(ound)           	b(ound)(ar)y 	assi(st)(ance)	(ch)(ance)llor
preci(sion)	proces(sion)al	hope(less)	b(less)(ed)
c(ount)	m(ount)a(in)	provid(ence)	h(ence)(for)(th)
(be)l(ong)	m(ong)rel	hope(ful)	fai(th)(ful)ly
(con)(st)itu(tion)al    	edi(tion)	firm(ness)	T(en)(ness)ee
me(ment)o	(com)(ment)          cav(ity)	p(ity)(ing)
(st)(ation)(ar)y	n(ation)	re(ally)	r(ally)(ing)
L(ance)	Fr(ance)s	Sp(ence)r	S(ally)

However, final-letter contractions are never used in words such as ancestor,  lesson , encephalitis,  fulfill,  mental,  and other words where the letters of the contractions occur at the beginning of the word. Just as these contractions can NEVER begin a word, they can NEVER begin a braille line as in the case where a word is divided between braille lines.
10.l.2  Part Words Only 
	Use final-letter contractions for parts of words only. They cannot be used for whole words such as  less,  ally, or Sion.
10.1.3  Base Word and a Prefix 
	When a word begins with the letters of one of these contractions,  the contraction cannot be used. When a prefix is added to such a word the final-letter contraction is still not used, even if it is divided between braille lines, for to do so would change the usual appearance of the base word.  
           Example:
                   wartime-     w>"t-
                       ally             ally
As you learned in Lesson 7,  when a prefix is added to a word that starts with con, the contraction for con cannot be used. In order to facilitate easy recognition and pronunciation in such words as incongruous and  uncongealed,  where the  con contraction is not used, the contraction for ong  is not used either. Thus:

         (con)gru(ou)s       (in)congru(ou)s      (con)g(ea)l(ed)     uncong(ea)1(ed)
Note: Some words, such as the word  unless, are deceptive. Although this word might appear to be a base word plus a prefix, it is not. The origin of  unless is the Middle English word onlesse, which is one word and therefore the contraction for  less  is used.
10.1.4  Base Word and a Suffix 
	When a contraction would overlap a root/base word and a suffix, a final-letter contraction cannot be used. 
 Examples:
   Fruity       squally        (ch)iefta(in)ess        citiz(en)ess
Note that when a suffix is added to chieftain and citizen the retention of the   final contraction in the base word preserves the usual braille form of the word.
EXCEPTION: Some easily read words do not follow this rule and the final-letter contraction should be used even though it overlaps the base word and the suffix. 
       Examples:
equ(ally)	tot(ally)	actu(ally)	  		visu(ally)
re(ally)	b(ar)o(ness)	lio(ness)			gov(er)(ness)
10.1.4.1  -ation
     The contraction for ation is used in preference to the a and tion signs in words like station and application because it saves more space. It is also used in preference to the ea contraction, as in  creation cre(ation)  not  cr(ea)(tion). 

10.1.4.2  full  and ful  
     Pay attention to words that begin or end with full or ful. In the whole word full the contraction for ful is not used because it would begin the word. In order to preserve the usual appearance of the word, when a prefix or another word is joined to it to form a compound word, the contraction is still not used.     	Examples:
full                     teaspoonfull	chock-full
full    t1spoonfull   *ock-full
Ful, on the other hand, is not a word by itself, and when it occurs at the end of a word it is always a suffix. In words ending in ful, such as brimful and teaspoonful  (the preferred spellings), the  ful contraction is used. 
	Examples:
brimful	  hopeful	  wonderful
brim;l    hope;l    wond];l

And, when a second suffix is added, such as ly, to a word ending in  ful, the contraction for ful is used. 
	Examples:
hopefully	wonderfully	beautifully
hope;lly    wond];lly     b1uti;lly
10.1.4.3  -ance and  -ence 
 	Although the general rule gives preference to a one-cell contraction over a two-cell contraction, use a two-cell contraction if space can be saved (See Section 9.3). And,  when  -ence  is followed by d or r, it is the preferred contraction even though no space is saved. 
	    Examples:
     (th)(ence)   [not]   (the)nce         (com)m(ence)d   [not]   (com)m(en)c(ed)
     d(ance)d     [not]   danc(ed)        Sp(ence)r            [not]    Sp(en)c(er)

 10.1.5  In Contact with an Apostrophe or Hyphen
 	A final-letter contraction cannot follow an apostrophe or a hyphen. Thus, the final-letter contraction is not used in grey'ound, nor in a hyphenated word such as re-ally, nor in syllabically divided words. 
        	Example:
             “I'm re-allying with the Roundheads,  so 'enceforth you can call me 
      'Mr. Par-lia- ment!”
     ,8,I'm re-ally+ )! ,r.dh1ds1 s '5ce=?
   y c call me ,mr4 ,p>-lia-m5t6,0
	10.1.6   Digraphs and Trigraphs 
	 	As with all contractions, do not use a final-letter contraction if it would disturb the pronunciation of a digraph or trigraph. Thus, the ity sign is not used in hoity-toity.
	10.1.7   Preserving Pronunciation 
		Do not use a contraction when two adjoining consonants are pronounced separately and where the use of a contraction would cause difficulty in recognition or pronunciation.
         Example:
			       mongoose   [not]      m;goose   
10.2 More Short-Form Words  
Following are six more short-form words to be memorized.
Short-	                            Short-	                          
Form	Meaning	  Form	Meaning	 
acr	across		  imm	immediate	
al	also	  m(st)	must	
alm	almost	  nec	necessary

    Example:
  It is necessary for you to look across the street carefully because of an     almost immediate danger from fast traffic, and you must also warn the others.
,x is nec = y 6look acr ! /reet 
c>e;lly 2c ( an alm imm dang] f fa/
tra6ic1 & y m/ al w>n ! o!rs4
                                                     Drill 27
Practice brailling the following sentences.
1.	He found it necessary but very difficult to dance with Sally.
2.	Congress established the Department of Agriculture May 5, 1862.
3.	The coroner came to the conclusion that death must have occurred here below the stairs, somewhere around three o'clock in the morning.
4.	“Counting the population is known as census-taking,” explained the 	teacher.
5.	The stern old judge simply will not countenance reckless driving because it almost always ends in injury or death.
6.	In the poem “Each In His Own Tongue,” the author reconciles the views of science and religion.
7.	The blessing was offered on the shores of beautiful Lake Como, across the bay from the little chapel.
8.	When the first witness was removed, it was a great pity that the second witness also lost all semblance of self-control and had to be literally dragged from the courtroom.
9.	We hope that the new lessee of the corner building, who has paid his rent in advance, will be less of a nuisance than the former one.
10.	Britain was a faithful ally of the United States during two world wars.
11.	His letter says that Lawrence did not have encephalitis, as the doctors feared, and that he is now fully recovered and about to visit the children.
12.	The ancestors of many Americans arrived in this country as penniless immigrants and had an immediate need for jobs and land.
13.	There were no mountains, just a steady up- and down-ness to the terrain.
14.	At last he recognized the mournful sound in the distance and gasped: “O Gawd!  the blood'ound is on my trail!”

15.	The old Tennessean was unlessoned in the refinements of polite society.
16.	“Above all, I must extend my very warmest congratulations to the new grandfather,”  he chuckled as he grasped the hand of his lifelong comrade.
17.	Thenceforth the squally weather continued without interruption for three days.
18.	The hoity-toity governess glanced scornfully at the conglomeration of toys littering the child's bedroom and said, “Perhaps it's time we tidied up here.”
19.	“That was good; you are very quick and parried the blow with the agility of an experienced fencer,” said the fencing instructor.

Reading Practice

Write the following sentences in longhand. Compare your work with the print version in Appendix A.

                   ,WELCOME 6! ,OLD ,RIV] ,9N

,! ,OLD ,RIV] ,9N1 LOCAT$ 9 ! HE>T ( PLANT,N C.TRY1 IS AN 9TIMATE GUE/ HOTEL1 PRES]V+ ! *>M (! PA/ 9 H>MONY )! AM5ITIES & 3V5I;ES (! PRES5T4 ,OV]LOOK+ ! ,FR.ES ,RIV] & SURR.D$ BY #100"-YE>-OLD OAKS DRIPP+ ) ,SPANI% MOSS1 ! ORIG9AL 9N 0 BUILT 9 #1817] ,-PLETELY RE/OR$ 9 #1995* GRT C>E HAS BE5 TAK5 6RETA9 ! HI/ORICAL SIGNIFIC.E (! ORIG9AL /RUCTURE4
,GUE/S W 2 MET AT ! RAILROAD /,N 0A HORSE-DRAWN C>RIAGE & TRANSPORT$ 9 ! /YLE (! EI<TE5 HUNDR$S 6! 9N4 ,"! !Y W 2 TR1T$ DAILY 6A -PLI;T>Y 3T95TAL BR1KFA/ &A #5 O'C W9E RECEP;N4 ,! GRACI\S D9+ ROOM F1TURES FOODS (! ,OLD ,S\?4 ,BRL M5US & SPECIAL M5US = *N >E AVAILA#4
,FOLL[+ A T\R (! HI/ORIC 4TRICT OR A BUSI;S MEET+1 ! ,OLD ,RIV] ,9N (F]S A PL1S+ SELEC;N ( RELAX+ DIV].NS4 ,E ROOM HAS WIDE-SCRE51 COLOR TELEVI.N4 ,D[N- /AIRS S(T PIANO MUSIC FILLS ! L\NGE4 ,/ROLL ! RIV] WALK 9 ! TWILI<T OR 5JOY A FAVORITE LIB,N &A GAME ( SKILL 9 ! 9N'S ,BILLI>D ,ROOM4
,WE W 2 GLAD 6COORD9ATE ANY D9+ RES]V,NS OR >RANGE HI/ORIC T\RS4
EXERCISE
Prepare the following  Exercise for submission to the instructor.
LESSON 10
1.	 An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.
2.	 “All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players: They 	have their exits and their entrances; and one man in his time plays many 	parts.”
3.	 “It's always true, new occasions teach new duties,”  pontificated 	grandmother.
4.	“If necessary, I can cite countless instances in which capital punishment 	has resulted in the execution of the wrong man”,  orated the defense 	attorney.
5.	Fortunately, he had the presence of mind to first call the fire department 	even though it was about three o'clock in the morning.
6.	He ruthlessly casts people aside as soon as they have outworn their 	usefulness.
7.	In order to avoid a bumpy flight we must get above the thunderclouds.
8.	Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence virtually 	unaided.
9.	Benjamin Franklin was instrumental in persuading France to become an 	ally of the United States.
10.	She had a great love for acting and faithfully performed even when she didn't 	get paid.
11.	Clarence usually arrived late at the office; nevertheless he managed to put  	out his full quota of work.
12.	The letter said that Spencer's ancestors were among the early settlers of 	Tennessee.
13.	The lessons learned through experience make a lasting impression.
14.	The new institution will specialize in the treatment of encephalitis.
15.	Hercules shot Nessus with a poisoned arrow for trying to abduct his wife.
16.	Terrence's mental capacity verges upon imbecility.
17.	Accused persons are protected from self-incrimination by the Fifth 	Amendment of our Constitution.
18.	Can you braille this recipe for Quick Banana Bread and have it ready for 	Sally on Tuesday?
19.	Allyson was especially fond of her little pet mongoose.
20.	The bewildered Londoner inquired of a passer-by on Pennsylvania 	Avenue,  “I say, which is the street to the Grey'ound Bus Station?”
21.	The only person we encountered was a disreputable-looking fellow, who 	spoke in a mongrel tongue that sounded like nothing we had ever heard.
22.	According to the announcement, our flight is cancelled on account of poor 	visibility over the mountains.
23.	The  recreational facilities of the playground have really undergone some 	major improvements.
24.	Because  her skills are below average, Frances cannot pass our course in 	business administration unless she has some special instruction.
25.	The  Baroness served a beverage with a good fruity flavor.
26.  His dreams of romance remained wholly unfulfilled until he met the 	  	  	beautiful French countess.
27.  Since her husband's election to Congress she has become rather hoity-  	toity––and her children are even worse!
28.  Every weekend an incongruous conglomeration of guests descends upon her 	woefully overcrowded country house.
29.  When he came riding across the bridge and into the village no one knew 	whence he had come or anything else concerning his background.
30.  The committee will study the recommendations of the Treasury Department 	experts and an immediate response will be sent to the president.
31.  Four columns advanced toward the city from without, and a fifth column 	cooperated from within.
32.  Just a short time ago, science seemed almost powerless in finding a cure for 	cancer.
33.  Perhaps we can make an excursion into the country on Sunday.
34.  The tribe was governed by a chieftainess who dispensed justice swiftly and 	impartially.
35.	Martha also has applied for the position of governess that was advertised in 	the Sunday edition of the Times.